Category: American History

Area 51: An Uncensored History of America’s Top Secret Military Base – Annie Jacobsen

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Of all the military installations, few are as mysterious as Area 51 which is located at Groom Lake in southern Nevada. The secretive military base has been the subject of rumors that the United States Government is holding the remains of an unidentified flying object (“UFO”) and extraterrestrial lifeforms. The theories are entertaining but remain unproven. This raises the question of what is Area 51? Annie Jacobsen, author of the best-selling book ‘Operation Paperclip: The Secret Intelligence Program that Brought Nazi Scientists to America‘, takes us on a deep dive into the history of Area 51 to reveal as much as possible about America’s most controversial and mysterious military base.

Prior to reading this book, I did not have any pre-conceived ideas about Area 51. Of course, I have heard and read of rumors that the United States Government is concealing alien lifeform and protecting dark secrets. The allegations are unfounded, but what we do know is that the area is heavily guarded and trespassing is forbidden. As a primer to the story to be told, Jacobsen discusses the controversial Robert “Bob” Lazar, a noted conspiracy theorist whose claims regarding secretive government operations have earned him an audience of likeminded individuals. To some he is a tin foil loyalist but was he completely off the mark? Well, the truth is complex but not as sensational as we might hope.

Looking back at the book, the crux of the story is the finale of World War II. We go back in time to 1945 when Allied commanders are on the brink of a Nazi defeat and a battered Japanese military. The development of the Manhattan Project was pivotal to the use of Little Boy and Fat Man against Japan in August 1945, and they were no secret to Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin (1878-1953). His counterpart in America, President Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), had been thrust into the role of commander-in-chief following the death of his predecessor Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), and quickly learned of America’s secret weapon. Stalin’s infiltration of America’s military secrets set the stage for the next four decades and paved the way for the growth of Area 51, where research and development reached new heights.

The success of the atomic bombs Little Boy and Fat Man had convinced even the most pessimistic generals that air combat was equally as important as ground troops. But before the story kicks into high gear with the Cold War, Jacobsen discusses an incident in Roswell, New Mexico in July 1947 that provided the spark to the rumors of a hidden UFO. The incident reappears later in the story with a plausible explanation for its origins and a surprising revelation about the aviation parts discovered. However, some mystery remains as to what really happened in Roswell. Whatever took place was serious enough to warrant the attention of the United States military and America’s intelligence apparatus. Both would play crucial roles in the development of Area 51.

The book is engaging from start to finish, but Area 51’s story takes on a new dimension when Central Intelligence Agency (“CIA”) operative Richard M. Bissell, Jr. (1909-1994) is assigned control over the base, to the objection of Air Force Gen. Curtis E. Lemay (1906-1990), former commander of the Strategic Air Command and legendary veteran of World War II. Their feud would eventually come to a head in April 1961, when a new President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) agreed to a CIA mission doomed from the start. But while America was focused on Cuba, the Soviets continued their space program and surveillance on adversaries. The cat and mouse game between America and Russia heats up with U-2 spy flights, espionage, and the belief on both sides of a nuclear confrontation. In hindsight we know that nuclear war did not take place, but that did not stop research and development at Area 51. In fact, the bag of tricks only grew as innovative technology emerged to transform America’s military.

The U-2 spy flights, and the capture of Francis Gary Powers (1929-1977) are also discussed, and both are well-known historical events, but I found the section regarding the development of the aircraft interesting. The engineering behind the new stealth aircraft is surreal, but also not without tragedy through trial and error. Powers’ capture and ordeal made headlines around the world, but they did not stop operations at Area 51. Bissell was removed in 1961 following the Bay of Pigs disaster, but that did not stop Area 51. In fact, defense contractors found a new market as Soviet aggression increased, and a war loomed in Southeast Asia. And in the years to come, a modern technology known as a drone aircraft would take to the skies and change warfare forever. The development of the drone is another interesting section in the book, and we turned the corner with its introduction and use.

While I read, I realized that the book was more important than just Area 51. In fact, it is full of historical information, and Jacobsen’s writing style keeps the narrative going at the right pace. I was aware of some events discussed in the book, but I also learned added information about the height of the Cold War, and classified information which had remained hidden for decades. The more I read, the less I was focused on the existence of aliens or spaceships. It was clear that Area 51 was more than a dumping ground for UFOs. It is a core part of America’s defense and a hub of top-secret activity only those with a certain clearance level are allowed to see. I believe that some secrets of Area 51 will remain hidden for assorted reasons. However, I do not think it is because of sensational claims by conspiracy theorists but instead feel that its importance to the nation’s defense is far too critical to allow compromise. Area 51 will remain off-limits. But Jacobsen has revealed a wealth of information about the mysterious location in southern Nevada.

Readers looking for gossip about hidden aliens, UFOs and other strange items may be disappointed here, but readers interested in facts about the base, and its role in the Cold War and America’s defense network, will appreciate Jacobsen’s work. She admits that she could not learn everything about Area 51, and to be fair there are no public tours of the facility. However, this book is a thorough account of its existence, development, and importance to national security. I would have liked to learn more about engineer and scientist Vannevar Bush (1890-1974), a co-founder of Raytheon and will have to add a biography of him to my reading list. But in regard to Area 51, this book is exactly what I needed. Highly recommended.

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B004THU68Q
Publisher ‏ : ‎ Little, Brown and Company
Accessibility ‏ : ‎ Learn more
Publication date ‏ : ‎ May 17, 2011

The Fighting Bunch: The Battle of Athens and How World War II Veterans Won the Only Successful Armed Rebellion Since the Revolution – Chris DeRose

On By Genyc79In American HistoryLeave a comment

When I saw the name Athens on the cover of this book I was surprised at first. Of course, I knew of Athens, Greece, but knew nothing about the city of the same name in Tennessee, a state I visited in October of last year. But such is the beauty and benefits of books. The story told within this book by Chris DeRose is of the “Battle of Athens” which took place between August 1 – 2, 1946. But what makes the story even more interesting is that the insurrection which took place was executed by American veterans of World War II who had become disillusioned and aghast at the corruption and voting suppression in Athens. This is a book of many stories which all culminated in that hot August night when Americans reclaimed the democracy they fought and died for across Europe and the Pacific.

At first, I could not believe that the insurrection occurred. The idea seemed surreal, and I had never heard of this event in school, nor had I seen anything about it online. However, not only did it occur, but it remains one of the rare times when Americans openly rebelled against a local government. In Athens, a political machine existed with a strong alliance between the powerful E.H. Crump (1854-1974) of Memphis, Senator Paul Cantrell (1895-1962), and local Sheriff Pat Mansfield. All the tricks known for voter suppression and grifting are on full display, and I found myself speechless at the brazen corruption. Political violence, intimidation, extortion, and outright fraud are rife early in the story. But what they did not know at the time was that their days were numbered. However, before we reach the climactic battle in August 1946, the author introduces the major players who lead the charge to retake Athens. And to do that, we go back in time to World War II. 

The back stories of the men who returned to Athens are equally as important as the fallout to come. I was glued to the pages as I read of their experiences in combat, as the Allied forces took on the Axis powers. The past comes alive as we learn of the deadly battles they survived, and the mental and physical scars they carried with them as they returned home to America. Putting the events in Athens aside, their stories could be a book of their own. They each return home changed men who had seen the horrors of war. We follow them as they adjust to society after the military, but it soon becomes apparent that in Athens, there is something very rotten taking place. The GIs have a plan of their own and form a non-partisan party to take on the machine. At the forefront is a veteran named Bill White who becomes the driving force to elect the veterans’ candidate and fellow veteran Knox Henry (d.1952). The powers in control pay little attention to the veterans at first but it soon becomes clear that a rigged election is not on the table. And when the machine pushes back against the GIs, the veterans realize that they may be home, but another war must be fought. The story picks up pace as the GIs turn the City of Athens upside down. 

White and his fellow veterans go to work dismantling the corrupt machine piece by piece. The collapse of Cantrell’s fiefdom is swift and ugly and leaves the corrupt politician with no choice but to exit quickly. However, White and the other veterans were far from done and left no stone unturned as they unseated and removed every politician and law enforcement official who had made their lives a living hell. As I read, it felt as if I were watching a feature film due to the author’s brilliant re-telling of the events. The narrative flows at the right pace with the right amount of suspense added in. Yet, I still could not wrap my head around the fact that this event happened in 1946. It is a story that should be told in classrooms across America. And the story should remove any doubt as to how precious and sacred democracy is. Following the downfall of the machine, the author provides a recap of events and an epilogue which should satisfy readers. I thoroughly enjoyed this book and found inspiration in the veterans’ call to action to push back against a corrupt system which was nothing short of tyranny. If you are looking for a delightful book about Americans standing up for their rights and our democratic processes, this book is highly recommended. 

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B084M1Y65B
Publisher ‏ : ‎ St. Martin’s Press, 2020

 

The Fires of Jubliee: Nat Turner’s Fierce Rebellion – Stephen B. Oates

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On the night of August 21, 1831, black slaves in Southampton County, Virginia gathered around Nat Turner (1800-1831), a charismatic fellow slave who had gained a following due to this anti-slavery rhetoric and calls for action. Turner and his followers were determined to revolt against the dehumanizing system of slavery and chose that night to launch their rebellion. By the time it was over, fifty-five people were dead before federal authorities arrived to take control of the situation. Turner was later captured, tried, and subsequently executed on November 11, 1831. Although he failed to abolish slavery, Nat Turner inspired others to resist and to this day, his name is mentioned in discussions of slave revolts of the 1800s. When I saw this book, it immediately caught my attention because although I knew of Nat Turner, there were aspects of his life which were a mystery to me. And what I found in this book are the answers to the questions I had about his life, and a sobering picture of his rebellion which shook slave masters to their core.

Readers should be aware that this book is not a “feel good” story. Turner’s short life was turbulent and ended violently. Further, the author introduces us to life for slaves in the early 1800s, and what we learn about Nat’s early life is difficult to accept. Despite the sensitive subject matter, the story is intriguing, and I learned a great deal about Nat Turner and his evolution to iconic freedom fighter. Today it seems incomprehensible that humans were forced to live in bondage in a country which was founded on the idea of freedom. However, in 1831, that was a cold hard reality in America. The brutal system of slavery is on display here, and there are moments which are heartbreaking. And it is impossible to put into words the grief felt by slaves whose families were separated on auction blocks and at the deadly hands of slave masters fueled by vengeance. The constant dehumanization and lack of purpose in life, combined with the darkest aspects of slavery to create a potent brew which laid the foundation for Turner’s final act.

Eventually the eve of August 22, 1831, arrives and something is in the air. Nat gathered his devoted followers and informed them at this was the night to make their vision a reality. Early in the morning on August 22, the rebellion was in full swing, and a wave of carnage fell over Southampton County. At this point, the book takes a sharp turn as the violence escalates but the author is careful about describing the events. As a result, the unsettling story does not feel like a recitation of gratuitous violence but a trip back in time to an event which was unthinkable in the North and South. As Turner and his followers unleashed a campaign of terror, fear spread like wildfire across Virginia. Washington soon took notice and sent the calvary to restore order. But before the military reaches Virginia, retribution by slave owners and bloodthirsty whites against blacks in the state is nothing short of barbaric. The violence was so disturbing that even hardened soldiers were unnerved.  And had the military not reached Southampton County in time, things would have been far worse.

As Turner’s associates fall one by one, the writing is on the wall, and we know that the price to be paid will be death. However, Turner was not afraid and makes a statement to fellow defendants after sentencing showing that the rebellion was neither for fame nor riches. For Nat, it was from the heart and based on his belief that a violent overthrow was the only way to free black people. But was he justified in his actions? I am certain that readers will ask themselves this very question as the story progresses. I must warn you that after Turner is executed, the story is a little macabre. Frankly, post-mortem actions by those seeking to erase any physical trace of him are beyond sickening. But if you reach that part of the story it will come as no surprise. And as chaotic as the story is, I could not stop reading and found myself glued to the book. The story is nothing short of surreal.

After the main narrative ends, the author provides an epilogue which focuses on his modern-day visits to the areas in which the events in the story played out. His encounters with locals are unusual but reveal that America still has a long way to go in some regards. Nat Turner’s rebellion was short lived, but he earned his place in history through the rebellion he launched to dismantle the system of slavery which took everything from those in its grip. The story is unsettling at times, but a critical part of American history which is not always as glorious as we would like it to be. And though we are far removed from the era in which Nat Turner lived, his story and that of Southampton, Virginia, are reminders of America’s blook soaked. Oates’ book does not glorify or demonize Turner but presents the story for the reader to digest. Nat Turner’s name will forever be linked with slave rebellion, and the debate about his actions will also continue. He lived a violent life in a violent time, in a country that knows violence all too well. But history’s greatest gift is giving us the chance to make sure it is not repeated. If you want to know more about Nat Turner and his rebellion of 1831, this is what you are looking for.

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B000XU4TAO
Publisher ‏ : ‎ HarperCollins e-books

Days of Rage: America’s Radical Underground, the FBI, and the Forgotten Age of Revolutionary Violence – Byran Burrough

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“The first lesson a revolutionary must learn is that he is a doomed man.” – Huey P. Newton (1942-1989)

On August 22, 1989, former Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton was shot and killed on a street corner in Oakland, California. His death was sudden and violent, and a reminder that the streets are unforgiving. Newton’s notoriety as a representative of Black voices during the Civil Rights Movement earned him a place on the watchlist of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (“FBI”). To some Newton was a dangerous radical working to destroy America but to others he was an icon who had the courage to stand up to a system in need of an overhaul. Regardless of opinion, Newton was only one of many people who took the streets determined to change America by any means necessary and were not afraid to use violence. Sadly, that meant collateral damage and fear during an era author Bryan Burrough calls days of rage. This is the story of the under radical movement in the United States which produced some of the most dangerous figures this nation has ever seen.

The book is extensive but focuses on several main organizations whose names are well-known. The first is Weatherman a/k/a The Weather Underground  which is credited by the FBI to having set off twenty-five bombs in U.S. Government buildings, police stations and the office of the California Attorney General. And its stand out star was Samuel J. Melville (1934-1971) whom we learn of in the story, along with Bernadine Dohrn who ironically is a retired law professor. I did not know about Melville or Dohrn prior to reading the book nor was I familiar with Weatherman. However, by the time I finished the book I was firmly aware of its existence, its actions, and its dark legacy. Burrough delivers on the goods and takes us inside Weatherman and the anarchy it caused. But this is only the beginning in a long book that is nothing short of a roller coaster ride.

As a primer, the author discusses the Civil Rights Movement which sets the stage for the violence to come. However, what is interesting is that neither Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) nor Malcolm X (1925-1965) were “extreme” compared to the others figures the author discusses. Dr. King had always preached non-violence and Malcolm strongly believed in self-defense by any means necessary. Neither led any violent raids or set off bombs but the cause they fought for, believed in and died for, was the proof others needed to escalate resistance to levels which caught the attention of the White House. The Black Panther Party found itself on the radar of the FBI and in due time the bureau would make use of its COINTEL program to destroy all organizations it deemed enemies of America. Newton and his colleagues would fall victim as would others whose lives are exmained in the book. The FBI was focused but the underground radical movement was growing exponentially. And as the story progresses, the suspense heightens, and the tension builds as radicals attempt to turn the United States upside down. Violence, sex, drugs, fame and calls for revolution form a potent mix from which both charasmatic and outlandish figures emerged in their quest to change the nation permanently.

I mentioned earlier that there are several organizations discussed in the book. Aside from Weatherman, there is Donald “Cinque” DeFreeze (1943-1974) and the Symbionese Liberation Army (“SLA”) whose story on its own is surreal. Of course, it cannot be told without addressing the abduction and enlistment of Patty Hearst.  Her story has been told by others, and it is thoroughly presented here as well but I could not help but shake my head in disbelief DeFreeze’s bizarre rhetoric and his ability to attract followers. The downfall of the SLA and its tragic finale left me with chills, but the book was far from over. In fact, while the SLA is conducting its unorthodox fallacies, members of Weatherman are still moving around America. And the chaos they created would be amplified by more extreme radicals whose names are synonymous with bank heists and gun battles with law enforcement.

The name Raymond Luc Levasseur did not stand out at first but older readers may be familiar with his story. However, that changed as the story progressed and the organization to which he belonged, the United Freedom Front, made itself known in a string of bank robberies and getaways straight out of Hollywood fiction. A tour of duty in Vietnam and racial discrimination had help shape Levasseur into the radical the FBI wanted off the streets as soon as possible. But that did not happen and the story of how Levasseur evaded capture is one of the more fascinating parts of the book. He was not alone and had a family to support and had been joined by other adults. Their ability to pack up and leave on a moment’s notice is surreal and their ability to evade capture was almost flawless except for one crucial mistake. To be fair, bombings were occurring with such frequency that law enforcement officials struggled to keep up and keep track. And just when it seemed that one group might be on the verge of extinction, another rose to the occasion.

My father had previously told me the story of William Morales, a member of the Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña (“FALN”) who had severely injured himself while making a bomb in his Queens apartment. The accident is gruesome but there is more to the story than my father had explained. In fact, Morales’ s disfigurement and escape from justice is unbelievable due to the limited use of his hands and impaired vision. His disappearance from Bellevue Hospital left me speechless. Despite a manunt and nationwide attention, Morales remained on the loose and is still alive today,  living in Cuba along with another radical in our story, Joanne Chesimard a/k/a Assata Shakur who remains a wanted fugitive by the FBI. The reasons for her status as a fugitive at large are explained in the book, in particular the shootout on the New Jersey Turnpike on May 2, 1973, in which Trooper Werner Foerster was shot and mortally wounded. The full story of the traffic stop, shootout and her conviction are too extensive for this book but the author weaves into the narrative without breaking the pace or weakening its intensity. Morales and Shakur will likely remain in Cuba for the rest of their lives but there was another Shakur who did not fare as well.

If you are familiar with the late rap star Tupac Shakur (1971-1996) you will be familiar with the story of his step-father Mutulu Shakur (1950-2023), a member of the Black Liberation Army whose actions are some of the darkest parts of the book. Shakur’s descent into radicalism sets him on a dark path destined for destruction. And that point is driven home when Shakur and his co-conspirators rob a Brinks armored car at the Nanuet Mall in Nanuet, New York on October 20, 1981. The full story of the robbery is too intricate for a blog post, but I was glued to the book as the drama unfolded. It is mind blowing and horribly tragic. The robbery left two Nyack police officers and an armed guard dead, and resulted in Shakur serving forty years in prison before being released for health reasons in December 2022. The Brinks robbery remains etched in New York State history and is a chilling chapter to a book that pulls no punches. Burrough gives us an uncut look into America’s haunting past and the years in which armed struggled was a calling card for aspiring young revolutionaries across the country.

Burrough’s book is long but it is beautifully written, well researched, and powerful. The history contained within the book is not pleasant but what the author discusses can serve as reminders of how far America has come and where it should never return to. If you lived through these years and recall the level of danger which existed, this book will bring back profound memories. I intend to discuss it with my father who has always said that the 1960s and 1970s were scary times because of the threat of nuclear war, assassinations, social unrest, revolution, and the rise of serial killers. Many of the figures in this book are now deceased and others well into their senior years are no longer on the streets planning acts of violence. But they have not forgotten theirs nor has America. Their legacies are complex depending on who you ask but the fact remains that hope move side by side with fear as the radical underground grabbed the country’s attention. This book is an invaluable tool in understand how and why the radical underground came to be.

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B00LFZ84PC
Publisher ‏ : ‎ Penguin Books (April 7, 2015)

Murdering McKinley: The Making of Theodore Roosevelt’s America – Eric Rauchway

On By Genyc79In American History, AssassinationsLeave a comment

On September 6, 1901, President William McKinley (1843-1901) arrived in Buffalo, New York for a Pan-American Exposition. As he made his way through the crowd, a young man stepped forward with a revolver hidden from sight. Once in front of the commander-in-chief, the assailant Leon F. Czolgosz (1873-1901) raised the firearm and squeezed the trigger, mortally wounding McKinley who died on September 14, 1901. The assassin was apprehended by the authorities and became the number one public enemy. But to everyone’s surprise, he was forthright in his reasons for the shooting and showed no signs of psychosis or evidence of being part of any conspiracy to murder the president. The investigation should have been an open and shut case, but it was not. In fact, the murder of William McKinley set off a series of events that changed the United States.  Author Eric Rauchway examines the assassination and the fallout which ensued in its wake.

Following Czolgosz’s arrest and confession to intentionally murdering McKinley, he does receive legal counsel. However, while the criminal justice system turned its wheels, America soon realized that it had a new president by the name of Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), who would transform America in ways that can still be felt today. The shooting is one part of the narrative with the author also focusing on Roosevelt’s administration and the changes in America. Interestingly, efforts to link the murderer to a foreign conspiracy of anarchists determined to destroy America come up short but highlight the fact that immigration has always been a hotbed issue in the United States. But I did take note of a statement by the assassin regarding his view of Republicans which sent chills down my spine because today, more than one hundred twenty-three years later, similar sentiments about the Republican party persist. And there is the issue of race which centers around the heroic actions of James B. “Jim” Parker (1857-1907), an African American migrant from the South who had fled Jim Crow to live in the North.

The Czolgosz family story is reviewed as well, with statements included from family members who provide background information on their infamous sibling. As I read, I could not find any evidence that the killer had any type of psychological impairment. His defense team was not easily convinced he was sane, and their position opens the discussion about the insanity defense and when it should apply. Until the very end, Czolgosz never changes his story as the trail of the assassin is followed and examined. In Washington, D.C., Roosevelt is busy remaking America into his vision for the future.

Students of American history will appreciate the discussion regarding Roosevelt’s rise and departure from office. His presidency is fascinating but not without its controversies. However, his policies remain examples of “progressive” politics. And this earned him supporters as well as enemies, and one of them attempted to execute a repeat of McKinley’s murder with Roosevelt, the intended victim. The surreal story is contained within, and Roosevelt’s actions following the attempted murder left me speechless. Theodore’s star continued to rise, but his decline was also lurking in the distance. And the succession of the presidency by William H. Taft (1857-1930) eventually guaranteed that Roosevelt would never again claim the fame he once had as president. But “Teddy” was far from done and launched the Progressive Party to gallantly return to Washington. In hindsight we know that things did not turn out as he had hoped but he had already cemented his legacy in American history.

Leon Czolgosz was eventually convicted and sentenced to death, but events post-mortem left me shocked. The disdain for the assassin is understandable, but the animus towards his remains is disturbing. Czolgosz never wavered from his statements as to why he shot McKinley. Whether he was mentally impaired remains to be proven but I do think we will ever see anything to the contrary. He was remorseless and prepared to accept his fate but, in the end, shooting the president did not accomplish any goals he had intended to complete. It did however, pave the way for one of the America’s most memorable presidents. This book is well-researched and well- written, and the author balances the narrative to provide a thorough discussion of the crime, the assassin’s story, Roosvelt’s ascent, and the aftermath as America went through growing pains. If you are interested in the assassination of William McKinley and a transformative period in American history, Rauchway’s book is a good place to start.

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B000RQ4FTE
Publisher ‏ : ‎ Hill and Wang; First edition (April 15, 2007)

The Lynching: The Epic Courtroom Battle That Brought Down the Klan – Laurence Leamer

On By Genyc79In American History, Civil Rights MovementLeave a comment

Warning: This writing contains discussions of sensitive topics which include descriptions of violence and racial discrimination.

On March 21, 1981, police in Mobile, Alabama responded to a call that a body had been placed on Herndon Avenue in the downtown section of the city. First responders arrived to find the severely mutilated body of Michael Donald (1961-1981) which had been tied to a tree. The crime was horrific and left residents of the city stunned. But as police investigated the crime and more information surfaced, Mobile’s dark past would also come into focus, with a spotlight on racial terror under Jim Crow in the South. I placed a disclaimer at the top of the page because this book will affect you. Although the author does not focus extensively on acts of violence, incidents are discussed to emphasize the level of danger black people found themselves living with. Black Alabamans had come to accept that justice was not blind, and if you were not white, your life did not matter as much. However, that would change with Donald’s death. 

Prior to reading the book, I did not know about Donald’s murder, so this was my first time learning about the case. However, the book is more than a discussion of a tragic homicide. In fact, it is a valuable tool for insight into the long struggle for equality in America and the sacrifices made by the people on the front lines who gave their lives so that others could live in peace. After the initial shock of the crime subsides, the focus shifts to the culprits. And we are introduced to Bennie Jack Hays (1915-1993), his son Henry F. Hays (1954-1997), and James “Tiger” Knowles. Of all the books I have read, these men by far are among the darkest figures I have come across. In fact, Bennie was beyond dark, completely unrepentant and the personification of evil. And to remove all doubt, this quote by his own attorney sums it up:

“Bennie was one of the most truly evil people that I’ve ever come across,” says Mays. “Even in my criminal law practice, I’ve had few people I’ve represented who you could say basically were born without a conscience. Bennie Hays had no conscience. None.”

It should be noted that the men were not lone soldiers but members of the United Klans of America (“UKA”), and subordinates to its leader Robert Shelton (1929-2003) who reappears later in the story during civil ligation. Initially the case was cold, but a surprise break by federal agents leads to the arrests of the murderers. And more surprisingly, there is a confession by Henry. But that is far from the end of the story. And though Henry would be convicted of capital murder, the Donald family’s journey had more ground to cover, and this is where we learn about the family’s lawyer Morris Dees. I was familiar with Dees’s name but personal story I did not know. Having finished the book, I can now say that he is one of the most important people in civil rights litigation and the Southern Poverty Law Center (“SPLC”), an organization he co-founded, remains an icon in the never-ending battle for equality. But as readers will see in the book, Dees was not always the crusader for racial justice. In fact, his own odyssey from a “good old boy” to game changing litigator as told in the story is as surreal as the criminal case itself. However, people can and do change. 

In the wake of the criminal case, Dees approaches Beulah Mae Donald (1920-1988) and asks if he can represent her in a civil suit against the UKA. She is initially hesitant, not believing a jury would ever find the UKA responsible for her son’s death. But Dees was determined, and she agrees, and the book takes another turn but one back into time to examine the history of Alabama and Dees’s life. Readers from Alabama do not need a history lesson I am sure, but for those of us who have not lived in the state or are unfamiliar with the contents of the book, you are in for a difficult yet redeeming journey in which we are provided a front row seat to the dark side of human nature and the influence of former Alabama Governor George C. Wallace (1919-1998).  Readers should be aware that the incidents discussed are difficult to accept and seem unbelievable today. However, they happened, and in many cases, the perpetrators of violence escaped punishment. Interestingly, I did notice one source of paranoia for supporters of segregation and discrimination which left me shaking my head in disbelief. I do not want to issue any spoilers, but readers will notice it too as the book progresses. 

The section of the book which focuses on the civil rights era and events in Alabama is haunting. It is hard to put into words how deadly the 1960s was in America and the climate of death which followed civil rights leaders and activists. The violence became so intense that it warranted the involvement of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (“FBI”) and J. Edgar Hoover (1895-1972) himself. And at the top of the chain of command in Alabama there was Wallace leading the fight against integration. Frankly, the story is horrifying but it will also make you realize that there are rights we have today which should be protected at all costs. Wallace was a chameleon in many ways but undeniably responsible for violence which engulfed Alabama. His personal story is equally as dark, but the concluding chapter of his life is a complete 180 degree turn from when he proudly declared “segregation now, segregation tomorrow and segregation forever!”. An irony I noticed in the book is that the most unsavory characters were also the most tragic and their lives did not end well. Karma never forgets. 

Eventually, the civil trial arrives in which Shelton must take the stand and defend the UKA. He is confident of victory and his arrogance seeps through the pages. However, times had changed, Alabamans had seen too much violence and racial terror, and being a Klan member no longer afforded the level of protection that it once did. As someone who works in litigation now, the discussion of the proceedings hit close to home, and I felt overwhelming satisfaction when the jury announced the verdict. The UKA was financially finished, but its members did not disavow their beliefs overnight, and some never did.  But Mobile’s black residents finally had faith that justice was indeed blind. Of course, nothing is perfect, and the case did not eliminate discrimination, but it did show that hate comes with a hefty price tag. In 2006, the City of Mobile renamed Herndon Avenue to Michael Donald Way and made it clear that his name would never be forgotten. And this book by Laurence Leamer ensures that his murder and its impact on Alabama can be studied in the present and by future generations. 

ASIN‏ :‎ B0151VIAKO
Publisher‏ : ‎William Morrow; Reprint edition (June 7, 2016)

Black Hawk: The Battle for the Heart of America – Kerry A. Trask

On By Genyc79In American HistoryLeave a comment

While reviewing recommendations from Bookbub, I came across this book from author Kerry A. Trask about Black Hawk (1767-1838), a war chief in the Sauk tribe in North America. Today their descendants can be found in the States of Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. The title grabbed my attention, and I began to ask myself how much I knew of Black Hawk and the Sauk people. I soon realized that I knew extraordinarily little and decided to make the purchase and rediscover a piece of American history. And what I found is a haunting yet important book about our nation’s past.

Prior knowledge of the Sauk tribe or the Black Hawk War of 1832 is not necessary to appreciate this book. The author provides a thorough explanation of Sauk history. The only trouble I initially had was keeping a mental picture of locations in the story. A map nearby may be a useful tool and keeping track of their movements, particularly after the treaty signed between Sauk representatives and the U.S. Government in 1804. This agreement would prove to be the pivotal moment in the story and set the Sauk on a collision course with the United States military. However, America was also going through growing pains, and the author discusses the horrid shape of the army in the early 1800s as confrontations with the native tribes increased with deadly consequences.

It should be noted that the book is not an easy or lighthearted read. In fact, there are parts of the story which will be uncomfortable. There are no glorious moments or riding off into the sunset. This story is vivid, raw and touches on a dark time in American history which should be known, understood, and never forgotten. That does not mean that the book is a story of American aggression against native tribes. While there are moments in which foresight would have helped, actions by the native tribes are equally as haunting and focus on the life and death situations which occurred frequently outside of the borders of the United States. I was mindful that in 1804, there were only seventeen states in the union and territory further west was “unorganized”. I say that loosely due to the fact that British and French fur traders continued to operate outside of America’s borders and further north in Canada.

After learning about the Sauk way of life, the story changes gears when Indiana Territory Governor and future President William Henry Harrison (1773-1841) signs the Treaty of St. Louis with Sauk representatives in November 1804. Each side had their view of the treaty, and the author explains the series of events for the reader to decide. Strangely, the Sauk returned years later and agreed once again on the conditions offered. However, Black Hawk and the older leaders decided that they would not surrender their land and the arrival of white settlers in Sauk territory set the stage for dark acts of retribution which Washington could not ignore. Readers familiar with America’s wars with the “Indians” will not be surprised at the descriptions of violence towards settlers. The text is grim, and emphasizes the risk taken by those venturing into unknown territory. While I read, I was reminded of the Fort Parker Massacre in 1836, discussed extensively in S.C. Gwynne’s ‘Empire of the Summer Moon: Quanah Parker and the Rise and Fall of the Comanches, the Most Powerful Indian Tribe in American History‘, a book which left me speechless. It may be tempting to view the natives as “savages”, but it is imperative to remember that they lived in a world far different from Europeans and had their own customs in regard to conflict resolution and protection of their territory.

The Sauk had been forced to move west in 1831 by military intervention but decided to re-claim their land in 1832. And here is where things escalate. Our ringside seat allows us to see the suspense build as Black Hawk and the association of Fox and Kickapoos, form their war council in response to increasing pressure from the United States. And once the military campaigns begin, the heat is turned up and the months between April and August of 1832 would be remembered for the bloodshed and heartache as the Black Hawk War claimed its victims. Early in the campaign, the native tribes maintain an advantage over American troops, but the military might of the United States and a Iowa County militia Colonel Henry Dodge (1782-1867) would prove to be too much. Interesting, two highly important figures in American history make an appearance in the story: future President Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) and future Confederacy President Jefferson Davis (1808-1889). This caught me completely off guard and added more intrigue to the story. The climatic Battle of Bad Axe would be the final nail in the coffin of the Sauk but Black Hawk’s story was far from over. However, he could not run forever and eventually accepts defeat, but the story takes a few unexpected turns. Following his death in 1838, the story becomes even more bizarre and disturbing as post-mortem events play out.

This book is a gem, and I did not anticipate the impactful story contained within. It is well-researched, well-written and a frank but enlightening discussion of America’s past. A friend once told me that history should never be erased but always understood. The indigenous tribes of North America endured heartache, separation, betrayal, and death as the United States expanded its borders. However, the tribes also battled each other and committed acts of unspeakable violence against settlers looking for greener pastures. History can be uplifting but it can also be sobering and haunting. As I stated before, there is no glory to be found in this raw look at the past. But we can find value in understanding the story of the Sauk and all that they lost.

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B00GET19F6
Publisher ‏ : ‎ Henry Holt and Co.; First edition (December 24, 2013)

The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow – Richard Wormser

On By Genyc79In American History, Civil Rights MovementLeave a comment

crowIn 1954 the United States Supreme Court issued a historic ruling in the matter of Brown v. Board of Education which declared that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. The groundbreaking decision widened the doors for the growing  Civil Rights Movement which was gaining traction across America. However, in the South, the system of Jim Crow was refusing to die, and found support from staunch segregationists determined to resist the Government’s involvement in matters they viewed as being within their state’s authority. In hindsight we can see today that the resistance was futile and compliance with the Supreme Court would be enforced. Jim Crow did fall, but it did not happen overnight. Further, in understanding its demise, we must also focus on its rise, and how, and why it was allowed to happen. Author Richard Wormser provides a recap of the rise and fall of Jim Crow in America, and why these important lessons are still relevant. 

On April 9, 1865, Confederate General Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) and his troops surrendered to Union General and future President Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, signaling the final stage of the American Civil War. For Black Americans, the Confederacy’s defeat was welcome news, along with the realization that slavery was gone for good. The former slaves had freedom, but a new challenge emerged for them and lawmakers. How would the former slaves be incorporated into mainstream society? In the South, former slaveowners were left without their source of manual labor as new freed slaves left their former places of bondage for good. In Congress, Republicans wasted no time in reshaping the United States with the goal of healing a nation that tore itself apart. However, the South was far from finished and sought to rise again. As the story here opens, we revisit the time after the war, when Americans treated their wounds, physically, emotionally, and psychologically. 

It would be impossible to discuss the reconstruction period after the war without mentioning U.S. President Andrew Johnson (1808-1875) who gave the South the lifeline it needed to recover and re-enforce its platform of racial segregation. However, the book is not a biography of Johnson and the attempt to impeach him in 1968 is discussed but briefly. What is given focus are his actions to thwart attempts by Republicans to ensure that the states part of the Confederacy paid fully for their war against the North and the facture of the Union. Johnson was so effective that less than fifteen years after the war, the South had removed itself from the destitution that was widespread during the conflict. And as Wormser points out: 

“By 1876, Democrats had regained control of every Southern state except Louisiana and North and South Carolina.”

Once the Democrats regained control of the South, Jim Crow found its footing and would make life unbearable for millions of Black Americans across the region. The system was designed with a focus on brutality and retribution for past events. I warn readers that the descriptions of the violent acts committed against minorities will be difficult to read. Readers sensitive to this subject matter should use discretion. But for those who are willing and able to understand America’s dark past, these sections are crucial because they also helped set the stage for Jim Crow’s downfall. Admittedly, it is hard not to recoil in disgust at what we learn about life under Jim Crow. Today it would be unimaginable for a city in America to operate in such a manner. But prior to the decision in Brown v. Board of Education and legislation by Congress, it was the reality for millions of people viewed as being less than human. 

Jim Crow’s brutality was no secret, but what was happening in Washington as it flourished? The author discusses the White House and the inaction by presidents who sat idling while Jim Crow held the South in its grip. Some were reluctant to act and even supported keeping Blacks contained to the lowest levels of society such as President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) whose administration was a Godsend to Jim Crow. That dark period is covered in the book and will leave readers speechless. Local authorities were just as dark and even worse depending on the territory. But in 1914, events in Europe would ignite the spark behind the Civil Rights Movement. On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) setting off World War I. For Black Americans, service in the military was seen as a path for recognition that would continue the lengthy line of enlistment by blacks since the American Civil War. But this time, the meaning was more profound as troops returned home with a purpose after serving in Europe where they witnessed society standing stark contrast to America. The genie was out of the bottle and accelerated ‘The Great Migration‘ (1910-1970). 

As blacks continued to gain ground, an organization which had been created in 1909, continued to advocate for Black Americans: the National Association for the Advancement of  Colored People (“NAACP”). This section of the book was interesting and I appreciated the discussion about Walter White (1893-1955) and the risks he took to expose the horrors of Jim Crow and lynching. It is surreal how close he came to death while he investigated the American nightmare. The times were dangerous but there was no turning back, and Black Americans were determined to change America. And in time, another war would see them rise to the occasion. But this time, Jim Crow would not survive. In fact, its demise is due in part to President Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) who was outraged at the treatment returning Black soldiers faced in America where their service meant nothing under Jim Crow. The bold actions by Truman revisited in the story, changed the military, and also pushed him towards reelection in 1948. But more importantly, it was a severe blow to Jim Crow itself which was under attack from all angles. 

Anyone with clear foresight could see that Jim Crow was destined to the trash heap of history. It was only a matter of when. Well, following the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision, a new generation of activists rose to the occasion, and they would not rest until minorities in America were afforded equality under the law. We all know their names but those are stories for another time. When I finished the book, I sat for a moment and thought of how much America has changed. There are dark moments in the story, and I found myself enraged while I read certain sections. But it also made me appreciate the United States even more. This book is an incredible discussion of how American split in half, reunited, gave way to a new reign of terror before correcting course. The movement never ends, but the times we live in now are far better than what we read about in books like this. And the most important lesson, we learn from the author’s exhaustive efforts is that Jim Crow should never happen again. 

ASIN:‎ B00IHCNOLK
Publisher : St. Martin’s Press (April 8, 2014)

The New Deal: A Modern History – Michael A. Hiltzik

On By Genyc79In American HistoryLeave a comment

hiltzigOn March 4, 1933, a new era in American politics was ushered into Washington as Franklin D. Roosevelt (1822-1945) (“FDR”) became the 32nd President of the United States, and succeeded Republican President Herbert Hoover (1874-1964). In doing so, he inherited a nation in financial turmoil and economic uncertainty in the wake of the Great Depression. The new president was determined to fix the country’s financial woes and embarked on a radical plan which became known as the “New Deal”. This collection of legislation, government agencies and fiscal policy became Roosevelt’s signature accomplishment, but he did not live to see its success due to his sudden death on April 12, 1945. We know the results of his policies but what took place behind the scenes as Roosevelt battled congressional opposition, logistical issues, and dysfunction within his administration as he sought to get America back on track? Author Michael Hiltzik answers those questions and others in this book which is crucial in understanding America’s transformation following the economic crash of 1929.

Before proceeding, it should be noted that this story is not about World War II or Roosevelt’s successor Harry S. Truman (1884-1972). In fact, the discussion prior to the war and the book concludes before German’s march into Poland on September 1, 1939. As the story unfolds, Hiltzig focuses on the transition from Hoover’s Republican administration to Roosevelt’s Democrat administration, and the grievous issues waiting for FDR. The transition is far from smooth and the disconnect between the outgoing leader and incoming leader is vividly clear. But once Roosevelt is in office, the story changes gears and picks up in pace as he commences his plan to reshape the United States.

In the weeks leading up to the inauguration, we are introduced to the men and women who played pivotal roles in Roosevelt’s success such as U.S. Secretary of Labor Francis Perkins (1880-1965), U.S. Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes (1874-1952), Presidential Advisor Harry L. Hopkins (1890-1946) and advisor Louis Howe (1871-1936). Roosevelt’s team faced a daunting challenged in changing America’s future, but as we learn in the story, they were instrumental and invaluable in guiding Roosevelt and executing orders when needed. And without them, the New Deal may not have been. What I found interesting is most of his cabinet members remained with him until his death and played crucial roles in assisting FDR on his mission for change. However, Howe’s death was heartbreaking, and he receives a fitting acknowledgment in the story for his influence as a presidential advisor. Although FDR had his supporters, he also had his opponents which included members of the Democratic Party. One unsettling event is the pushback from New York Governor Al Smith (1873-1944) whose fall from grace and exodus from politics is re-told here, and decades later it still comes across as surreal.

The Great Depression had left America reeling financially, and FDR realized that drastic plans were needed to change course. However, that would not be easy with Republican opposition and pushback from the Southern Democrats in the Senate, who were cautious of the new president and staunch defenders of the southern way of life, supported by segregation and Jim Crow. In 1933, he went on the offensive when Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, which gave way to the creation of the National Recovery Administration (“NRA”) under the leadership of Hugh S. Johnson (1882-1942). The controversial director was a staunch of FDR’s plan, but his own personal demons, explained the book, cast a dark cloud over the administration’s purpose. Johnson’s story is surreal yet tragic, and we can only wonder what his capabilities would have been had it not been for his dark side. However, the bright side of the legislation was the creation of the Public Works Administration, followed in 1934 by the Works Progress Administration, the latter of which had a significant impact on the nation. As the author points out:

“The output of one agency alone, the Works Progress Administration (renamed the Works Projects Administration in 1939), represents a magnificent bequest to later generations. The WPA produced, among many other projects, 1,000 miles of new and rebuilt airport runways, 651,000 miles of highway, 124,000 bridges, 8,000 parks, and 18,000 playgrounds and athletic fields; some 84,000 miles of drainage pipes, 69,000 highway light standards, and 125,000 public buildings built, rebuilt, or expanded. Among the latter were 41,300 schools.”

As he eyed the nation’s recovery, Roosevelt began to envision a financial security system for Americans as they aged. The concept was visionary but faced opposition. Would it be left to the government or the states? It was an important question that is scrutinized in the story by the important figures, including an appearance in the story by Louisiana Senator Huey P. Long (1893-1935) whose statements have become part of legend. The maneuvers behind the scenes are fascinating and allow us to see how life-changing policy is imagined, drafted, and subsequently signed into law. In this situation, that law became the Social Security Act of 1935. Long did not live to see its impact due to his assassination on September 19, 1935, in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. However, millions of Americans can vouch for the foresight by Roosevelt, as Social Security has become a crucial source of income for older, retired Americans.

There are many high moments in the book but dark parts as well, in particular the sobering reality that the New Deal was good policy but for Black Americans, their struggle did not improve as expected. In fact, the gap between White and Black Americans widened in some ways as the government rolled out new policies to push America forward. Jim Crow was alive as well, and the Southern Democrats in the Senate would not entertain any civil rights bills. Roosevelt knew he could not afford to lose their support but faced constant pressure to take a stronger stance on racial injustice in America. Politically it makes sense, but morally it is up for debate. The author tackles the subject head on and pulls back the layers of the New Deal’s real effect on Black Americans. But, regardless of Roosevelt’s decision and actions, race continued to grow as a hotbed issue in America and the coming war with Germany, Italy, and Japan, would force it upon millions of people around the world.

The story begins to wind down as we approach 1938. The NRA had come and gone, and in Europe, tensions were brewing as the German Chancellor Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) set his sights on carving up the continent for the Third Reich’s expansion. In America, the threat becomes increasingly real, and the New Deal would be forced to take a back seat to the war effort. But before the battles and occupation of foreign territory by Axis powers, America was rebuilding itself in monumental ways through Roosevelt’s ideas. And although he did not change the Supreme Court in the ways he intended, he understood how important their decisions are to the lives of every American. The story of his showdown with the Supreme Court is also told here, and it is a tale we have seen play itself out in recent times as the 45th President, Donald J. Trump, made his choices for the highest court in the land. The past is always prologue. If you want to know more about the New Deal and the goals of Franklin Roosevelt’s administration, this is a must read.

ASIN ‏:‎ B004INH9UO
Publisher ‏:‎ Free Press (September 13, 2011)

Devil’s Gate: Brigham Young and the Great Mormon Handcart Tragedy – David Roberts

On By Genyc79In American HistoryLeave a comment

RobertsIn the fall of 1856, the Willie and Martin Mormon handcart expeditions found themselves caught in devastating blizzards in the mountains of Utah and Wyoming. Of the nine hundred travelers, two hundred fifty of them did not reach their destination. The migration was a disaster and a stain on the legacy of Brigham Young (1801-1877), second president of the Mormon Church. This tragic event has remained in the shadows of Mormon history and omitted from history books. When I saw this title in my list of recommendations, I immediately purchased it and began to learn about a crucial era in American history as told by author David Roberts.

Prior to starting the book, I was familiar with the Mormon Church and its offshoot the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS), made infamous by the arrest and conviction of its former leader Warren Jeffs for sexual assault of underage followers. Jeffs is currently incarcerated and allegedly still holds power within the Church. However, I was not aware of this particular story. Roberts explains the history of the Mormon Church, paying close focus on its growth as it attracted converts from as far away as England and Scandinavia. The European immigrants played an integral role in the church’s plans but their belief and dedication came at steep personal costs as we learn in the book. Further, the Church itself was a pariah, and frowned upon by officials in more than one state. In fact, the Mormons are forced to vacate their dwellings more than once in the book as authorities sought to clamp down on the group and its polygamous beliefs. In spite of the unrelenting pressure, the church’s first leader Joseph Smith (1805-1844), was determined to see his vision come to fruition, but he met his own untimely demise, re-told in detail by the author. A power vaccum ensues but as fate would have it, the reins would end up in the hands of Young, who later had blood on them as well. 

Brigham Young was a charasmatic figure and that can be seen in the story. He had the ability to make people belief in his vision even if that meant the possibility of death. But there is a darker side to the story which I did not expect, prior to the dreadful handcart expedition we know is coming. As I read the story, I took notice of the Danites fraternal organization that served as an “enforcement” arm of the church. This part of the story is mind bending and made me recoil in surprise. I had no prior knowledge of this group and what Roberts reveals about their actions sent chills down my spine. It is surreal. And if former bodyguard Bill Hickman (1815-1883) is to be believed, Smith and Young were more dangerous than they seemed. 

While the Church is finding its footing, Young continues with his plan for the handcart migrations. Like any tragedy, there are a series of events that led up to the disaster. One in particular is glaringly obvious, but it benefits the reader by taking a look online at the handcards the settlers were forced to use in 1856. The sheer amount of physical strength and endurance to push these carts without adequate nutrition and compliant weather should answer any questions as to what it was like for them on their journey. But as this played out, I asked myself where was Brigham Young and what was he doing? The author answers both questions, and what I learned was both shocking and infuriating. Surely, Young took secrets with him to his grave, but I find it difficult to accept his actions during this time. Officially he is still seen as a prophet in the Mormon Church, but his actions and inactions cannot be overlooked. The hardships faced by the handcart companies were beyond brutal and highlight the lack of foresight by those they trusted with their lives. And to remove all doubt, the author provides entries from journals taken by various settlers who survived the trek. Their stories paint an even darker picture of the realities they faced during the migration. At times, I stepped away from the book to have a moment to digest what I had learned about their ordeal. I developed a newfound appreciation of modern-day comforts. 

Admittedly, this book is not a “light” read but it is invaluable in understanding the ideas and goals that inspired people to embark on journeys across North America during the 1800s to parts unknown. Each year on July 24, Mormons celebrate “Pioneer’s Day” to commemorate the arrival of converts in 1847 to the Great Salt Lake Valley in Utah. It is a significant day but the deaths of settlers who dreamed of reaching the valley should not be in vain. Their story remains alive in this book that tells the tale of the handcart tragedy. 

“The conclusion is inescapable: nearly two months before the arrival of the long-awaited Ellsworth and McArthur Companies, Heber Kimball and Brigham Young were fully aware that more than seven hundred more handcart Saints were preparing their journeys westward, dangerously late in the season. What those two men, as well as the rest of the Mormon authorities in charge of the emigration, did—or more precisely, did not do—in the face of this alarming development remains all but inexplicable today.”

ASIN : B001FA0HTS