Black in Latin America – Henry Louis Gates, Jr.

On By Genyc79In Latin AmericaLeave a comment

Gates

In March 2018 I visited the South American nation of Uruguay, located to the east of my beloved Buenos Aires, Argentina. The visit was my first and as I walked down the streets of Montevideo, I found myself a witness to an impromptu dance celebration in which Afro-Latino culture was on full display. The performance was brilliant, and following that surprise, I visited a museum dedicated to the garments worn during carnival. I also learned about Rubén Rada, a multi-talented Uruguayan performer. I felt a sense of pride at seeing people who would pass as Black Americans displaying their cultural heritage. But I also asked myself, why was I so surprised? It is no secret that Black people can be found all across Latin America. Further, I can trace my own family’s roots on my father’s side back to Central America. And my father has told me more than once that Spanish was spoken by the older generation when he was a kid growing up in Brooklyn, New York. When I saw this book by Professor Henry Louis Gates, Jr., I decided to pick it up and see what was inside. What I found is a valuable tool in understanding world history and the complexities countries struggle with to this day.

The book is presented in a different format than might be expected. We follow the author as he travels around Latin America, meeting scholars and historians who do their best to answer his questions about the concept of race in countries where official labels have been removed. The past is always prologue, and to understand things today, Gates through the help of those being interviewed, takes us back in time when the Spanish Empire perfected the process of colonization. We make stops in Brazil, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and even Mexico, learning how colonization shaped the culture and policies. Revolutions broke the shackles of Spanish rule but sadly, the matter of color did not go away as we learn through the speakers in the book. And if there is one thing that is constant, it was that in every country, Afro-Latinos continue the struggle for recognition and advancement. But not all is dark in the book. In fact, there are bright moments all throughout the story as the feats and accomplishments of historical figures come back to life, highlighting diversity and resilience across Latin America.

No travel memoir would be complete without food and that applies here. Gates makes sure to let us know about the cultural delights across Latin America as he becomes a guest to individuals whose intellect and actions which make exploration a necessary tool in broadening the mind. The history we learn is incredible and will change the way you view Latin America. But there is an iron that I could not ignore while reading the story. Latin American nations, in an effort to “confront” racism, embraced the elimination of ethnic labels. However, as we see in the book, that decision had an effect they did not anticipate which continues to this day. On the positive side, the acknowledgment of Afro-Latino heritage continues to grow, and as I have seen with my own eyes, Latino is not a monolith. I have shared meals, drinks and sleeping quarters across Latin America with people of all shapes, sizes, and skin colors. And in those moments, they were my brothers and sisters or as they would say “nosotros somos hermanos”. In this story, Gates is the brother of another mother who learns things about Latin America that leave him both shocked and with more questions.

As I read, I found myself enthralled with the people the author meets who are all beautiful people. Their knowledge is surreal and through Gates, we learn history either hidden or omitted. Brazil is a special stop as the country contains the largest Afro-Latino population of any Latin American nation but the countries which caught my attention the most were Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The latter I have visited multiple times but have never traveled to its western neighbor. As I write this blog post, Haiti remains locked in the vice grip of gangs who seized control of the country while acting Prime Minister Ariel Henry was on a trip to Kenya. He has agreed to step down as a “transitional council” is completed to restore order in Haiti. Gangs have warned that any movement without their consent will result in further anarchy in Haiti. I hope that peace prevails, and Haiti can find a path forward. The Dominican Republic has secured its borders and air space and drawn criticism for sending Haitians back across the border to their country. But underneath the surface, these two countries have a long history and Gates dives into it, providing a crash course on the history of Hispaniola.

Gates does a respectable job of asking tough questions, and also gets multiple opinions, sometimes from taxi drivers and bystanders on the streets. The answers vary, and show that within Latin America, things are far from black and white. In fact, there are many shades of grey.  And a full discussion on the history of Hispaniola would require a book several times longer than this one. But what Gates provides is enough information, paying close attention to the dates and iconic figures who changed Latin American history. Seasoned travelers,  historians, and readers from the countries he visits will know many of the things, if not all, that he writes about. But for readers who have never traveled to Latin America, this book is a primer on cultural aspects that are both insightful and sometimes uncomfortable. But issues can only be resolved if they are confronted.

Currently, change is spreading across Latin America as people have reached their limits with poverty, corruption, ineptitude and political instability. Chile continues its mission to full replace its constitution. Argentina elected a new president who is sending shockwaves across the country. In Peru, the government continues to face mounting dissention. And in Brazil, a former president is facing accusations of falsifying Covid-19 data and having plotted to subvert an election. This is only a sample of the list of places currently in the midst of unrest. Change is coming, but any improvements that occur should include all Latin Americans regardless of what they look like. Progress is slowly being made but there is still work to be done. And despite the long-lasting effects of Spanish colonialization, understanding and acceptance of ancestry will continue to grow as technology advances and history is revealed.

In the summer of 2017 while on a trip to Miami, Florida, a fellow traveler visiting from Puerto Rico struck up a conversation with our group and told me “you and I are brothers, we share the same bloodlines”. Others in the group were surprised because the two of us had quite different appearances. But what I understood is that he was acknowledging the island’s African and Taino legacies, which remain crucial parts of Puerto Rican culture. I thoroughly enjoyed reading this book in which the story never loses its pace. Once Gates hits the ground, he is off to the races, exploring Latin America and all that it has to offer. The title is  eye-catching, but I can assure you that the book is not a “rage against the machine” or an attempt to paint Latin America as a dark and unforgiving place. In fact, whether you are Black, White, Hispanic or other demographic, you can find something of value in this book. History is not always pleasant, but it does teach. And here we are the students who must learn history that can help plan the future. Highly recommended.

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B005C9GNTQ

We Don’t Know Ourselves: A Personal History of Modern Ireland – Fintan O’Toole

On By Genyc79In Autobiography, IrelandLeave a comment

fintanIn February 2016, I visited Dublin, Ireland for the first time so that I could see for myself why this small country was so popular. In my hometown of New York City, Irish culture can easily be found. The police and fire departments have long history of Irish men and women who served as first responders in the “city that never sleeps.” And if you are in search of a drink and meal, a good Irish pub is hard to beat. As for my personal experience abroad, I fell in love with Dublin but I regret not having a better understanding of Irish history at that time. In the years that followed, I began to consume books on Ireland and the conflict known as “The Troubles”, being careful to read material from both sides of the matter. Regardless of how much I have read, I can see that there are stories still untold or in some cases, unknown to those on my side of the Atlantic Ocean. Fintan O’Toole is a native son of Ireland and this biography was included in my list of weekly recommendations. The book caught my attention and I knew I had to read it. It suffices to say that I received more than I could have asked for, and this book is a treasure.

O’Toole’s story begins in 1958 but the author discusses momentous events in world history that shaped his childhood in Ireland. World War II had ended thirteen years prior, and the Korean War had entered a ceasefire only five years earlier. And as we can see in the book, Ireland was still years away from catching up with the rest of the world. In fact, what O’Toole says about basic household needs in the wake of World War II is revealing. Even more telling are the restrictions in place regarding women’s rights, reproduction, and “exposure” to the rest of the world. Frankly, Ireland was in its own protected bubble. But slowly, we see things change as O’Toole takes us through the years in which Ireland evolved. But before we reach the point where conservative Ireland becomes liberal, the author takes us into the dark parts of Ireland’s history as the nation struggled with its own identity.

I would like to point out that this book is not about the Troubles. Of course, O’Toole discusses the conflict, but he did not live in Ulster Province nor was he involved with the Irish Republican Army (“IRA”) or any Ulster volunteer forces. However, his father makes a statement in the book about the Troubles that showed keen foresight. And when the Troubles do start, the violence that ensues is heartbreaking, but only a fraction of the chaos which took place during those years. There are books available which do go into the IRA and Ulster battle more deeply. Two that I recommend are Patrick Radden Keefe’s ‘Say Nothing: A Story of Murder and Memory in Northern Ireland‘, and ‘UVF: The Endgame’ by Jim Cusack and Henry McDonald. And if you are in search of a biography of someone that was there, I recommend ‘Nothing But an Unfinished Song: The Life and Times of Bobby Sands’ by Dennis O’Hearn.

Readers should beware that there are dark parts of the story which do not relate to O’Toole himself but to the nation in general. It is impossible to discuss Ireland without acknowledging the role of the Catholic Church. Its role in the development of Ireland cannot be overlooked. O’Toole is aware of this and discusses its stance against contraception and abortion, and the priests who became sexual predators and used their status to exploit minors. Although there are no graphic descriptions of anything, but the actions of priests and the protection they received will be upsetting. The influence of the Church resulted in a country where  birth control was outlawed, abortion was never an option, and basic women’s rights were an uphill struggle. And even more shocking is that this was less than seventy years ago. Today it would be unthinkable to read of these conditions in the United Kingdom, but this was life for Irish women at that time. And there is more to the country’s history as we learn in the book.

It is no secret that America has strong ties to Ireland. The amount of Irish people who left their homes to settle in America is astounding. The author explains the reasons for Irish expats and how society helped create the issue. But was America the answer to everything? Depends on who you ask but it was a step up from the living conditions thousands of families faced in a nation that needed change and to evolve. In June 1963, President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) made a four-day visit to Ireland, and that historic visit will not be lost on readers. That trip and the excitement it generated is re-told here and is one of the book’s highest moments. But despite the president’s visit, Ireland still had a long way to go. It did eventually change, and  in ways no one could have predicted.

Before reaching the climactic moment in which Ireland turns the corner, we also learn more of O’Toole’s life. There is nothing shocking in his own story, but he too grows as Ireland does. However, there is a surreal moment in the book where he is mistaken for a killer. His family life was stable but not without its own challenges parents go through in raising children. As a student, he was familiar with the priests who were later exposed as pedophiles and tells a few stories that sent chills down my spine. Even more disturbing are the parents of the child victims whose reactions I did not expect. Here in America, we had our own experience with it during the priest scandal which erupted in the Northeast, and became the basis for the movie ‘Spotlight‘ starring Michael Keaton and Mark Ruffalo.  It is a good film but not easy to watch.

One of the book’s strongest points is the author’s discussions about the corruption within Ireland and how politicians and scandals were exposed. The culture of deceipt created a weird contradiction in which women were expected to be pristine  while being exploited by those in power who found themselves embroiled in sex scandals that made my eyes roll in disbelief. The hypocrisy is astounding. However, Ireland was changing and through the author’s eyes we see hope. The Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement in May 1998  was a significant step in establishing peace but the back story is very interesting, and O’Tool provides commentary on the peace process and the role of United States President William J. “Bill” Clinton. Following the agreement, more is in store for the reader and the book culminates with significant strides made on the issues of abortion and the LGBT community which remained an open yet guarded secret in a county over ninety percent Catholic. The events are historic but what O’Toole explains about the voter demographics regarding abortion proves that people can change. And for Ireland, the only way to move was forward.

O’Toole’s biography is not only his story but a thoughtful and fascinating account of how a country went from being ultra conservative to one of the most liberal places in Europe. Of course, the men and women Ireland have not forgotten its past and that is why they continue focus on its future. If you have visited Ireland and wanted to know more about the country, this is a powerful addition to any library. And if you are Irish, you may learn of things never discussed at the dinner table. Highly recommended.

ASIN :‎ B08X96MBQ8

Devil’s Gate: Brigham Young and the Great Mormon Handcart Tragedy – David Roberts

On By Genyc79In American HistoryLeave a comment

RobertsIn the fall of 1856, the Willie and Martin Mormon handcart expeditions found themselves caught in devastating blizzards in the mountains of Utah and Wyoming. Of the nine hundred travelers, two hundred fifty of them did not reach their destination. The migration was a disaster and a stain on the legacy of Brigham Young (1801-1877), second president of the Mormon Church. This tragic event has remained in the shadows of Mormon history and omitted from history books. When I saw this title in my list of recommendations, I immediately purchased it and began to learn about a crucial era in American history as told by author David Roberts.

Prior to starting the book, I was familiar with the Mormon Church and its offshoot the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS), made infamous by the arrest and conviction of its former leader Warren Jeffs for sexual assault of underage followers. Jeffs is currently incarcerated and allegedly still holds power within the Church. However, I was not aware of this particular story. Roberts explains the history of the Mormon Church, paying close focus on its growth as it attracted converts from as far away as England and Scandinavia. The European immigrants played an integral role in the church’s plans but their belief and dedication came at steep personal costs as we learn in the book. Further, the Church itself was a pariah, and frowned upon by officials in more than one state. In fact, the Mormons are forced to vacate their dwellings more than once in the book as authorities sought to clamp down on the group and its polygamous beliefs. In spite of the unrelenting pressure, the church’s first leader Joseph Smith (1805-1844), was determined to see his vision come to fruition, but he met his own untimely demise, re-told in detail by the author. A power vaccum ensues but as fate would have it, the reins would end up in the hands of Young, who later had blood on them as well. 

Brigham Young was a charasmatic figure and that can be seen in the story. He had the ability to make people belief in his vision even if that meant the possibility of death. But there is a darker side to the story which I did not expect, prior to the dreadful handcart expedition we know is coming. As I read the story, I took notice of the Danites fraternal organization that served as an “enforcement” arm of the church. This part of the story is mind bending and made me recoil in surprise. I had no prior knowledge of this group and what Roberts reveals about their actions sent chills down my spine. It is surreal. And if former bodyguard Bill Hickman (1815-1883) is to be believed, Smith and Young were more dangerous than they seemed. 

While the Church is finding its footing, Young continues with his plan for the handcart migrations. Like any tragedy, there are a series of events that led up to the disaster. One in particular is glaringly obvious, but it benefits the reader by taking a look online at the handcards the settlers were forced to use in 1856. The sheer amount of physical strength and endurance to push these carts without adequate nutrition and compliant weather should answer any questions as to what it was like for them on their journey. But as this played out, I asked myself where was Brigham Young and what was he doing? The author answers both questions, and what I learned was both shocking and infuriating. Surely, Young took secrets with him to his grave, but I find it difficult to accept his actions during this time. Officially he is still seen as a prophet in the Mormon Church, but his actions and inactions cannot be overlooked. The hardships faced by the handcart companies were beyond brutal and highlight the lack of foresight by those they trusted with their lives. And to remove all doubt, the author provides entries from journals taken by various settlers who survived the trek. Their stories paint an even darker picture of the realities they faced during the migration. At times, I stepped away from the book to have a moment to digest what I had learned about their ordeal. I developed a newfound appreciation of modern-day comforts. 

Admittedly, this book is not a “light” read but it is invaluable in understanding the ideas and goals that inspired people to embark on journeys across North America during the 1800s to parts unknown. Each year on July 24, Mormons celebrate “Pioneer’s Day” to commemorate the arrival of converts in 1847 to the Great Salt Lake Valley in Utah. It is a significant day but the deaths of settlers who dreamed of reaching the valley should not be in vain. Their story remains alive in this book that tells the tale of the handcart tragedy. 

“The conclusion is inescapable: nearly two months before the arrival of the long-awaited Ellsworth and McArthur Companies, Heber Kimball and Brigham Young were fully aware that more than seven hundred more handcart Saints were preparing their journeys westward, dangerously late in the season. What those two men, as well as the rest of the Mormon authorities in charge of the emigration, did—or more precisely, did not do—in the face of this alarming development remains all but inexplicable today.”

ASIN : B001FA0HTS

War on the Border: Villa, Pershing, the Texas Rangers, and an American Invasion – Jeff Guinn

On By Genyc79In American HistoryLeave a comment

VillaDiscussions of American history during the 1800s may cause one to wonder how the country survived intact. The Civil War, conflicts with Native Americans, and two presidential assassinations highlighted the violent century in which America changed significantly. As the 1900s approached, America was ready for new challenges but in 1914, the world was plunged into war after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914). As America watched the growing conflict, tensions increased on its southwest border as Mexico found itself in the midst of revolution and armed resistance from rebels such as Doroteo Arango who is famously known as Francisco “Pancho” Villa (1878-1923). This is the story of his role in Mexico’s revolution and its resistance to American foreign policy.

I knew Villa’s name as he has become a pop culture reference in the years following his death. But I did not know his story, and how he became a mythical figure. This book by Jeff Guinn clears up some of the confusion about Villa’s actual role in the revolution and America’s attempt to capture him. The author provides a good primer on Mexican history and United States expansion, in particular the 1847 when the Southwest as we know it began to come into focus. We are also provided with a recap summarizing the impact of former President Benito Juárez (1806-1872). South of the border showed that Mexico had its own political tensions which rose to surface in the last days of President Porfirio Diaz’s (1830-1915) regime. Guinn takes us back in time as the power vacuum begins, and soon enough, Mexico finds itself at a crossroads. What ensues is an intriguing account of unusual coalitions, double cross, political fame, and murder.

Readers should be aware that the multiple men serve as president of Mexico in the book. In fact, at one point, the names change quite rapidly. But this is not the author taking creative freedoms. Mexico was unstable and the thirst for power consumed easily. And it is in the middle of the ongoing political upheaval that we are introduced to Villa, the obscure rebel who had no desire to become president, but still found a place in history. The majority of the conflicts take place in Mexico but on March 9, 1916, Villa staged a raid on Columbus, New Mexico which caught the attention of President Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924), who put his faith in the legendary General John J. “Black Jack” Pershing (1860-1948) to stop Mexican aggression and capture the elusive Villa. And what follows is a cat and mouse game that becomes surreal as Villa seems to escape each time, and even survives an assassination attempt which remained a carefully guarded secret. And while this saga plays out, Mexico continues its cycle of political dysfunction.

Pershing was determined to find Villa; however World War I loomed in the distance and upon America’s entry, the famed general was called into service yet again, leaving Villa free to his own devices. And surprisingly, Mexico had its supporters, including Germany which had its own agenda as the war raged. Villa continues his rebel activities but eventually reaches the end of his usefulness. In 1920, President Venustiano Carranza (1859-1920) was assassinated and succeeded by Adolfo de la Huerta (1881-1955) who negotiated a “early retirement” for Villa which was accepted. Sadly, the revolutionary only had a few more years to live himself and we learn of his fate, and the last days of other figures who could not escape the violence of Mexico. From start to finish the author maintains the right pace of the narrative and the account is a roller coast ride through Mexican history. What we learn is disheartening but also a reminder of the importance of a functioning democracy. Pancho Villa is long gone but he lives on as the iconic bandit who sought to liberate his country.  The reality is far more complicated, less climactic, and darker in some areas. And whether Villa was a saint, or a sinner is up to you to decide. But we have here is a solid discussion of his exploits and role in the Mexican Revolution.

ASIN ‏:‎ B08LDV3VXG

The Heart of Everything That Is: The Untold Story of Red Cloud, An American Legend – Bob Drury and Tom Clavin

On By Genyc79In UncategorizedLeave a comment

CloudIn the 1800s, the United States was a rapidly growing nation that had evolved from thirteen British colonies to a country seeking to expand across North America. The ideology of “manifest destiny” propelled the drive west into the unchartered and unknown. White settlers who dared to venture past America’s borders faced severe dangers with no guarantee of military aid. But all knew that the gravest dangers outside of the United States were the Native American tribes who called the continent home. As explorers and American military personnel moved further west, the native tribes reaffirmed their commitment to preserving their way of life. Washington’s plan for establishing more territory set the two opposing cultures on a collision course that spread violence, mistrust, and cast a dark cloud over American history that exist to this day. The names of Sitting Bull (1831-1890) and  Crazy Horse (d. 1877) are legend, but there were other warriors who struck fear across the continent and wanted fugitives as Washington sought to solve the “Indian problem”. Among them was Red Cloud (1822-1909), an Oglala Sioux who caught the attention of the U.S. Government as his united front of warriors handed America a horrific defeat at what became known as the “Fetterman” massacre. This is the story of Red Cloud’s life, America’s war against Native Americans, and the fallout from the conflicts which turned the continent red.

Before continuing, I want to point out that this book is not for the faint of heart. It is the raw uncut truth which will be upsetting to readers sensitive to descriptions of violence and the tragedies that befell people on both sides. Should you choose to read the book, understand that this is a dark chapter in American history that you did not learn in grade school. Drury and Clavin pull no punches, and it is clear during the story that the America we know today is vastly different from what life was like during the violent 1800s when the United States was still charting its course and went to war with itself as the issue of slavery divided the North and South.

Red Cloud’s story begins near the Platte River in modern-day Nebraska, in 1822. His people, the Oglala, are a subtribe of the Lakota people, whose homes could be found in what are known as the Dakotas today (North and South). The authors provide a good course on Sioux history, their customs, and Red Cloud’s early life in which he comes of age at a time when change began to spread across North America. in 1836, one of the most shocking Indian raids occurred at Fort Parker in Texas, as discussed by S.C. Gwynne in the book ‘Empire of the Summer Moon‘.  The story of Hugh Glass (1783-1833), brought to life in the 2015 film ‘The Revenant‘, provides interesting insight into life at that time. The film is fictionalized in certain aspects but does provide realistic examples of the threats one faced when outside of America’s borders. I assure you that the film is tame compared to what happens in this book.

As Washington’s war against the Indians heats up, the battles become more intense and both sides dig in for a protracted struggle. Both sides score victories, but what happens to those on the losing side is beyond words. It is fair to say that if the American troops caught you, your chances of survival were far higher than if the Native Americans found you. In fact, what happened to settlers and troops unfortunate enough to be caught alive at the hands of the Oglala and other tribes such as the Comanches, is horrifying. And it should come as no surprise that for some troops, suicide was a preferred option to capture. But the authors provide an explanation for the Indian’s actions which I had not heard previously. And while it does not explain all the barbarity on display, it does clarify their attitude to the remains of fallen enemies. Regardless, what happens to the captured settlers and soldiers in the book should be a sobering reminder of the deadly environment which dispersed across the continent. It should also be noted that Native American tribes had their own wars against each other before the arrival of Europeans, and those battles were just as deadly as what we see take place regarding American exploration.

Red Cloud soon makes his entry into the battles as he matures into a young man, with a wife at home. On a side note, the story of his marriage and the tragedy surrounding that affair adds a sorrowful footnote to his story. But warriors were needed, and in time Red Cloud would prove himself in ways no one could have predicted. On the American side, the job of containing Red Cloud and the union of tribes fell on Commander Henry B. Carrington (1824-1912) and Captain William J. Fetterman (1833-1866). And this is where the stage is set for the battle that will change history. As the saga plays out, we witness the Indians’ ability to circumvent American military operations and the soldiers’ underestimation of their opponents’ determination to keep white faces out of their territory. The missteps on the American side become hauntingly clear and I could not help developing a sinking feeling as the decisive battle inched closer. Whether it was miscommunication, ego or stubbornness is lost to history, but the failure to follow orders, make uninformed decisions and the lack of intelligence surrounding the Indians’ plans, doomed the mission from the start. The climatic battle on December 21, 1866, is re-told in all its savagery, as blood is spilled, and lives are lost. The post-battle recapitulation will leave readers speechless. The carnage to be found is second only to Gen. George Armstrong Custer’s (1839-1876) last stand at the Battle of Little Big Horn in June 1876. Fetterman suffered a stunning defeat, and the reality of native resistance struck Washington at its core. In 1868, the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed, however, it would soon be violated leading to more conflict as settlers encroached on Indian territory. Despite fierce resistance, Indian tribes realized that America’s military might was too strong and accepted placement on reservations. Sadly, there are tribes now extinct due to the battles for control of North America. As for Red Cloud, he survived until his own passing 1909, but he had secured his place in history as the Indian who withstood an American military attack and handed its forces a demoralizing loss. This is American history; the good, the bad and the ugly. It is also a definitive account of Red Cloud’s rise and fall.

ASIN: B00BSAZ614

The Dead Are Arising: The Life of Malcolm X – Les Payne & Tamara Payne

On By Genyc79In BiographiesLeave a comment

malcolmFebruary 21, 2024, will mark fifty-nine years since the assassination of Malcolm X (el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz) (1925-1965) at the Audobon Ballroom in Harlem, New York. His murder remains a topic of discussion, but the crime itself has been de-mystified through books and documentaries. Malcolm authored his own autobiography with the help of Alex Haley (1921-1992), but omitted certain aspects of his life. In my search to learn more about him, I came across Manning Marable’s (1950-2011)  ‘Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention‘.  I also read Bruce Perry’s ‘Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America‘, which contained surprising allegations regarding Malcolm’s persona life. Marable also made salacious claims which are still up for debate. Perry’s biography is a good starting, but lacks the detail of Marable’s work and the biography here by Les Payne (1941-2018) and his daughter Tamara, who finished her father’s writing after his untimely death. However, compared to Marable’s writing, the Paynes take a different approach by leaving out gossip and assumptions while focusing on Malcolm’s time within the Nation of Islam (“NOI”) which cast a dark cloud over Malcolm’s last days.

The authors revisit Malcolm’s early life and in particular his father Earl Little, Sr. (1890-1931) who has an interesting story of his own. In fact, I learned more details about him than I had previously known. And those details add more to Malcolm’s story which sadly is left out of the 1992 film starring Denzel Washington as the late iconic figure. The book moves at a steady pace and the authors do not give too much attention to areas which would have prolonged the story. We are given more than enough information about Malcolm’s youth, his move to Boston where his sister Ella Little-Collins (1914-1996) takes him in, and his fall from grace as he is tried, convicted and sent to prison. Like Marable, the Paynes ensure that Ella is a crucial part of the story. Sadly, she is not shown in the film due to personal differences behind the scenes. Another figure crucial to the story is Minister Louis Farrakhan, who appears in the story but only briefly towards the end. I first thought this was odd but having finished the book I understand the decision to keep Farrakhan’s role to a minimum.

The crux of this book is unquestionably Malcolm’s time in the NOI under the leadership of Elijah Muhammad (1897-1975). As a primer, the origins of the NOI are discussed and the disappearance of its mysterious founder Wallace D. Fard,  whose exodus paved the way for Muhammad. Interested readers can review the case files maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (“FBI”) here. I have started to examine them and Fard has quite the story. There are statements in the book from people who met Fard providing a glimpse into who he was. However, it is not clear what happened to him in 1934 when he vanished without a trace. But with Fard gone, the NOI was in the firm grip of Muhammad who through his rising star minister would expand the NOI and capture the FBI’s attention.

The first hint of trouble in Malcolm’s relationship with the NOI comes through a well-hidden story which has not garnered enough attention: the working agreement between the NOI and the Ku Klux Klan (“KKK”). This explosive story is not entirely secret and is reconstructed here to show the impact it had on Malcolm and the contradictions he was forced to confront. Further, as he became more popular, Malcolm gained more enemies, some of whom were members of Muhammad’s family. The dysfunction within Muhammad’s family is a story of its own but what stands out here is the contempt some of Muhammad’s children help for Malcolm. Further, the revelation of Muhammad’s illegitimate children by his son Wallace added fuel to the fire, and what develops is a toxic relationship between Malcolm and the NOI. And this is where the stage is set for his murder. Marable did discuss the attempts on Malcolm’s life but while reading this book, I read between the lines more closely to understand what Malcolm himself was saying about the NOI as his date with destiny approached.

Enemies of Malcolm had called for his removal as early as 1963, but the reasons for it need further exploration. The tension between him and Elijah Muhammad were an issue, but after reading this book I have come to believe that it is what Malcolm knew about NOI affairs as a whole that sealed his fate. In fact, he alluded to this several days before his death as discussed in the book. Frankly, he was too popular, too smart, and too willing to tell the truth about the Nation to remain alive. Readers will see the nexus of conspirators come into focus as the story progresses. And the picture, which is emerges, is of a man facing enemies both seen and unseen, determined to end his existence and project Muhammad and the NOI. Missing from the story is Malcolm’s relationship with his wife. Of course, Betty Shabazz (1934-1997) is in the story but very little is discussed regarding their marriage. This diverges sharply from Marable’s book which did discuss their marriage and personal struggles. Also left out of the main narrative is Clara Muhammad (1899-1972) whose marriage to Elijah Muhammad suffered under the strain of the paternity issues facing him as his deeds came to light. However, the story remains intriguing without those items on the agenda, and I did not lose focus on the growing web of danger surrounding Malcolm. In fact, the story builds up the suspense and it felt as if everyone else could see what Malcolm did not. It reminded me of the scene in the film where Betty (Angela Bassett) says to Malcolm (Denzel Washington) ” Open your eyes. Open your eyes. You can face death 24 hours a day, but the possibility of betrayal never enters your head. Open your eyes”.

The dreaded moment we know is coming arrives when Malcolm takes center stage at the Audobon Ballroom. The fracas and ensuing chaos are re-told here in vivid detail, including the events at Newark’s Mosque No. 25 as the assassins returned from New York. And it is alleged that among these killers was William Bradley (1938-2018), who is also examined in the Netflix docuseries ‘Who Killed Malcolm X?“. And like the docuseries, we learn here that the murder was an “open secret” within the NOI. I felt chills down my spine as the book’s conclusion played out. To be fair, Bradley was never convicted in a court of law of any wrongdoing. And though he did have a criminal record, none of the charges were related to Malcolm’s death. However, convicted assassin Talmadge X Hayer (Thomas Hagan) did admit that Bradley was the assassin who fired the sawed-off shotgun that day. The Paynes do not go into the subsequent arrests and convictions, choosing to end the book with Malcolm’s passing. They do, however, include a section about undercover New York City Police Department (“NYPD”) officer Gene Roberts who also comes under scrutiny in the Netflix docuseries. Needless to say, Roberts was not the only person who saw the assassins that day. Scores of informants were in the ballroom that day, and each reported to case officers following the shooting.

We may never know the full truth about Malcolm’s death, and at least two shooters escaped justice. Malcolm is gone but his life will not be forgotten. And every year he is remembered for what could have been. If you need a streamlined account of Malcolm’s short but extraordinary life, you may find this to be exactly what you are looking for.

ASIN‏ :‎ B085T2DG2L

George Marshall: Defender of the Republic – David L. Roll

On By Genyc79In Biographies, World War IILeave a comment

MarshallIf you were to ask me to find one word to describe the late Gen. George C. Marshall (1880-1959), the word that comes to mind is unsung. In comparison to the larger-than-life figures who served in World War II such as President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) and Gen. Matthew B. Ridgeway (1895-1993), Marshall remained behind the scenes and helped formulate the plans behind the missions that sustained and propelled the Allied effort. When I saw this book on sale, I decided to take a look into Marshall’s life to learn more about the man whose name was given to the “Marshall Plan“. And what I learned has improved my understanding of World War II, the existential threat from  Adolf Hitler’s (1889-1945) Third Reich, and the conflict’s impact to this day.

Marshall’s story begins in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, a city known for its role in the Underground Railroad, which was supported by the staunch abolitionists who resided there. Among them was Marshall’s mother Laura. The family is typical of what one would expect in late 1800s America. Marshall grows into a fine young man and finds his calling at the Virginia Military Institute. It is here that his introduction to the armed forces begins and is the first step on a journey that took him across the world and made him a part of history. The story picks up in pace after he marries his first wife Lily, but also takes an unexpected turn as we learn of the relationship between Marshall and his older brother Stuart, who disappears from the remainder of the story for reasons explained by the author. Life was good for the young couple in the years that followed, but in 1914, World War I would change everyone’s lives.

The first world conflict was a turning point in history and Marshall was on the front lines to see its effect. His service in the war is discussed by the author and we learn that he performed admirably and earned the respect of those who knew him. But it is not long before commanders realize that Marshall is far more effective as a planner of campaigns. His tutelage under the late Gen. John J. Pershing (1860-1948) would advance his career in ways no one could have imagined. Marshall returns home from the war and resumes his career in the armed forces. The war was over, but he had become convinced that America needed to improve its military for future threats. As can be seen in the book, it becomes an uphill battle before events in Europe begin to change the minds of Americans. In 1927, Marshall would face his first experience with personal tragedy as he confronts his wife Lily’s mortality. Her story is heartbreaking, and it is clear throughout the story that Marshall never fully recovered. A second wife named Katherine enters the story and their life-long romance is included as back drop to main story, which is Marshall’s life in the military which changed yet again on September 1, 1939, when the Third Reich invaded Poland and ignited World War II. On that same day, Marshall was appointed as chief of staff of the U.S. Army and was determined that America would face any threat and win.

Undoubtedly, World War II where the book gains momentum and the suspense increases as Marshall fights for military spending, a draft and sounds the alarm about the growing German threat. However, there was another threat as we see in the book, which later came back to haunt Marhsall and his subordinates. Tensions between the United States and Japan had been increasing before the attack on Pearl Harbor and this was not lost on the Army Chief of Staff or the White House. Roll revisits the weeks before the attack to examine what commanders did know and which actions, they performed to warn commanders at Pearl Harbor of a Japanese operation. And though there is no “smoking gun” that gave precise details of the upcoming attack, there were warning bells that the military should have been on heightened alert. The author does not explore any conspiracy such as President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) “allowing” the attack to happen. If Roosevelt knew for certain and did nothing, then that is information he surely took with him to his grave. The author does explore what is know about the Japanese communications which had been decrypted by the military. Once the attack happened, all of that was out the window as America had become drawn into World War II, and Marshall would have to rise to the occasion. The war would touch him in many ways, including personally, as he and wife Katherine suffered their own loss. Further, the war also opened Marshall’s eyes to the experiences of Black soldiers who faced rampant discrimination, segregation, and violence. His faults at understanding the issue of race are presented by the author, and Marshall himself later makes statements about his failures to take needed actions. While it easy to condemn Marshall, I also understood how he viewed things from a military perspective and not a civilian or political vantage point.

There are few words I can say about the savagery of World War II that have not already been said. It remains the most brutal conflict in world history. The Allied victory was won through enormous sacrifice and the brilliant minds of Marshall, subordinate Dwight Eisenhower, and scores of legendary military leaders who fought in America’s defense. Interestingly, without Marshall, Eisenhower may not have made a name for himself in Europe. Their relationship is explored in the book, and I wondered what would have happened if Marshall had taken control of the European Theatre. He may have succeeded Truman as president. But Marshall was not a political person and his aversion to politics is clear in the book. His goals were to defend the nation and improve the military. While reading the section regarding World War II, I noticed that the author streamlined the narrative beautifully. We are given enough information to understand the military operations being launched and the behind-the-scenes interactions with the British who sorely needed American support and the Soviet Union. The relationships were not without friction but what is clear is that without American intervention, the war in Europe may have concluded very differently. In the Far East, China was a simmering hot plate as the battle between Chiang Kai-Shek (1887-1975) and Mao Zedong (1893-1976) heated up. And sitting back examining all aspects was the Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin (1878-1953) whose Red Army helped turn thetide against Nazi Germany. If you love World War II history, this part of the book will have you glued to the pages. At some point we know Germany’s defeat is imminent, and it does come. Following the European victory, we reach the Pacific’s climax with the introduction of the Atomic bomb, and its use on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Following the collapse of the Axis powers, Marshall focused on rebuilding Europe and his vision which became the Marshall Plan, remains a critical part of world history. But, his work was far from done and President Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) would call him back into service again as Asia heated up.

On June 25, 1950, the North Korean military invaded the South and kicked off the Korean War. Marshall would once again find himself involved with a conflict that threatened world peace. Compounding his frustrations and those of Truman, was the tense situation between Washington and Gen. Douglas McArthur (1880-1964). The late general had become both a legendary and mythical figure. But as we see in the book, his unilateral actions, contradictory to White House policy, caused fear and panic that America would be drawn into World War III. The unbelievable story plays out here again but the full story has been covered thoroughly by author H.W. Brands in ‘The General v. The Present: McArthur and Truman at the Brink of Nuclear War. Today we know with hindsight that a world war did not happen, and an armistice was signed on July 27, 1953. But the possibility of a wider war was very real, and Marshall had no illusions of Chinese and Soviet intervention. The Chinese did get involved, forcing several American retreats but the Soviets did not. The world had dodged a bullet. For Marshall, there was not much left to do as he had aged, Mao Zedong had established the People’s Republic of China and the DMZ was created in Korea. He returns to private life following the Korean conflict and the story reaches its own sad conclusion with his passing in 1959. The book is a remarkable account of an incredibly important figure that is sometimes a footnote in history. Marshall is truly an unsung hero. This biography is invaluable in learning about the life of the man who changed the United States Armed Forces.

ASIN‏ :‎ B07JYQV52N

Mistress of Life and Death: The Dark Journey of Maria Mandl, Head Overseer of the Women’s Camp at Auschwitz-Birkenau – Susan J. Eischeid

On By Genyc79In UncategorizedLeave a comment

Version 1.0.0

“In 1941 I joined a party organization the Deutsche Frauenschaft and in the summer of 1942 joined the NSDAP. At this time the SS men in the camp sent out a questionnaire stressing that all guards had to belong to the party.” – Maria Mandl

The above statement from former Auschwitz-Birkenau women’s camp guard Maria Mandl (1912-1948), gives the impression that the once proud Nazi party member reluctantly embarked on a journey which involved the persecution of thousands of prisoners detained in the Third Reich’s concentration camps. However, the truth is far more disturbing. In fact, Mandl was known as one of the Reich’s most dangerous overseers and guard who sought to enhance her standing within the Reich. In the annals of World War II history, the female camp guards are sometimes a footnote in discussions. But the dark reality is that many of them were equally as deadly and sadistic as their male counterparts. And like other former officers, many also made homes for themselves outside of Germany as the Third Reich collapsed in April 1945. Readers familiar with the exodus of Germans at the end of the war may recall the name of Hermine Braunsteiner (1919-1999), a former guard at the Ravensbrück and Majdanek concentration camps who was discovered living in my hometown of New York City, in a small part of Queens called Maspeth. In 1973, she was extradited back to Germany where she received a life sentence in 1981. Mandl’s story is much shorter but just as unsettling. This is the life and death of the infamous guard as told by author Susan J. Eischeid.

Before starting the book, I did not know about Maria Mandl. I had heard the name Ilse Koch (1906-1967) and Irme Grese (1923-1945) whose actions during the war earned them a place on the dark side of history. Here, I learned about Mandl with a blank canvas that filled up quickly. Her early life is unremarkable in the sense that she came from a stable home with loving parents and no trace of dysfunction that warranted her future behavior. In fact, the family is so typical that it is hard to understand her descent into tyranny as a female guard. I concur with the author who opines that her thirst for power trumped her moral compass and provided justification for the horrors to come. And what becomes clear very quickly is that she accepted and enjoyed her newly obtained power after joining the ranks of the Reich guards.

I must warn the reader that Mandl was highly disturbed and unhinged at times. Her erratic and often contradictory behavior on display in the book led me to believe that she suffered from undiagnosed psychological ailments. The changes in mood and actions are like an alternating current, and at times it is not clear where Mandl’s mind is. This is further complicated by her love life, which is just as crazy as the actions of the camp guards. On a side note, the author explains a few things about camp behavior that will make readers cringe. I think the word that best comes to mind is debauchery. Mandl learned firsthand what it meant to “give oneself to the Reich”. Her firsthand experiences and lack of a stable companion only served to increase the tensions at the camp, with Mandl unleashing her rage on female prisoners. Living conditions at the camp were sub-human as anyone familiar with the holocaust knows and those conditions are described in the book to reinforce the inhumane treatment that endured. However, Mandl seemed to delight in humiliating other women and the acts recalled in the book are mind boggling. In one instance, the camp has an orchestra that practices and performs as others are being sent to their deaths. It is both macabre and surreal. And in the middle of this is Mandl whose dark and twisted mind tries to rationalize her actions. Her story is so absurd that at one point, she tries to convince others of how she tried to “help” or “save” the prisoners she treated like trash. The cognitive disconnect is hard to believe at times. I can only imagine the author’s thoughts as she compiled the story of Mandl’s life.

Upon her arrival at Auschwitz, the story takes a darker turn as that camp was known for its methods of madness. Within the camp, we learn of the rivalries between guards and the misogynistic attitude towards female guards from their male counterparts who saw them useful for a “good time” only. Even more unsettling are the intimate relationships between guards and prisoners on both sides of the aisle. The dysfunction within the Reich knew no bounds. Mandl joins the mix of insanity and continues her contradictory behavior. The stories are strange, upsetting and mystifying. Further, they will remove all doubt that Mandl “cared” for her prisoners. Sure, there were some situations where she took “pity” on a prisoner and spared her wrath for that moment. But those occasions were far and few in between and not the normal course of business.

As the book progresses, we know that liberation will eventually come to the camp as the Allied forces closed in on Berlin. When the collapse takes place, it becomes every man for himself with thousands of former guards left to fend for themselves and find a way out of Germany before the Soviet Army moves in. Capture by American forces was much more preferred as it offered a better chance of living out the remained of the year in jail instead or a long-term sentence instead of execution. Mandl tried her best but as we see in the book, she is eventually detained and later stands trial. I could not help myself, but while reading the story of proceedings, the image of Kate Winslett in the 2008 film ‘The Reader‘ came to mind. The fictional Hanna Schmitz is not seen on film committing the atrocities attributed to Mandl, but she was a war criminal and paid for her crimes. Like Schmitz, Mandl tried to offer the same excuse of “following orders”. No one bought that story, and it becomes clear in the story that Mandl’s days are numbered. And when she makes her exit from the story, the author describes the last swift moments that marked the end of the life of a Nazi guard responsible for death, heartache, and destruction. In her home village of Münzkirchen, her family was left to wonder how their little girl grew into a monster. Sadly, her father was kept in the dark regarding many things to protect him, but he was aware that his daughter had become what he despised. Mandl’s story is a tragedy in all respects and brings home the realities of war.

This is not a “delightful” book. It is dark at times, but also a reminder of the Third Reich’s insanity as World War II raged and the regime commenced the “Final Solution”. Maria Mandl met her end in 1948 but left a wake of terror that remained implanted in the memories of those who survived the horrors of the camps. This well-presented discussion of Mandl’s life inside the Reich and her fall as Germany’s unimaginable defeat became a reality shall remain a testament to humans’ uncanny ability to destroy themselves and those around them.

ASIN : ‎B0C15WQYJ2

Death of Innocence: The Story of the Hate Crime that Changed America – Christopher Benson and Mamie Till-Mobley

On By Genyc79In American HistoryLeave a comment

EmmettOn August 28, 1955, Mamie Elizabeth Till-Mobley (1921-2003) received a phone call that permanently changed her life. Her son Emmett (1941-1955) had been abducted and murdered while staying with relatives in Money, Mississippi. The crime was brutal and normally would have been swept under the rug in a small southern town. However,  his mother refused to let her son fade away and become a distant memory. She not only insisted on bringing the remains north, but she also made the fateful decision to have an open-casket funeral. Uncensored images of his body which were published in JET and Ebony magazines, sent shockwaves across America, and even today the pictures are haunting. Sadly, Emmett is known as the teenager who was murdered for the crime of “possibly whistling at white woman”. But is that what really happened that day? The woman behind the register, Carolyn Bryant (1934-2023), allegedly admitted in 2007 that the story was fabricated. But she later told the Federal Bureau of Investigation that she had not recanted. A bureau investigation found no credible evidence that she admitted to making false statements in 1955. The truth about the sequence of events at the store remains shrouded in mystery. Her former husband Roy Bryant and his friend J.W. Milam were acquitted of the crime by an all-white jury but in the court of public opinion, America had reached a turning point.

Till’s death is undoubtedly the darkest point in the book, but it is not the sole focus. In fact, this is his mother’s story of her life, her son Emmett and how she managed to continue living after his untimely and senseless death. As the story begins, Mamie takes us through her childhood which starts in Webb, Mississippi. It is a return to the Deep South, where Jim Crow is in full effect. At the age of eighteen, she meets Louis Till  (1922-1945) whom she marries in 1940. The couple soon finds out that they are expecting a child. The marriage should have been joyful but Mamie reveals the dark side to Louis whose unpredictable and volatile nature cast a dark cloud over their union. After one terrible incident in the book, he is given the choice of jail or the Army. America had entered World War II by this point and Louis soon found himself in Europe. He disappears from the story until 1945, when Mamie receives a notification from the military that Louis had been executed due to willful misconduct. She does not go into the details because she had no idea what took place. However, author John Edgar Wideman did examine what is left of the military file regarding Louis’ execution. He wrote about it in his book ‘Writing to Save a Life: The Lous Till File’. The story is convoluted and not clear in some respects, but the reality is that Louis was gone, and Mamie had become a single parent. So, in the 1950s she made the move to Chicago with Emmett in tow.

Mamie and Emmett’s life in Chicago is fairly routine with her son blossoming into a responsible young man. This is by far the best part of the book, and critical in understanding who Emmett was. His mother provides crucial facts that explain his character and determination in life. However, there is one extremely important aspect of his early struggles with language that provides a clue as to what may have happened later  in Mississippi. I do not want to spoil it for the readers but what Mamie explains will make the alarm bells go off in your head. As I read, I found myself feeling closer to Emmett and enjoying his maturity from a child into a teenager. And had he not been killed; he surely would have grown into a fine adult. From the anecdotes provided by Mamie, Emmett’s high intelligence and sharp wit earned the admiration of his mother, grandmother, and all who knew him.

While raising a son, Mamie also has time for love and goes through her difficulties before finding a rock in the form of Gene whom she marries and remains with until his death later in the story. Gene, along with her mother, are the rocks of the family and help weather the storm through the dark times to come. In the summer of 1955, Emmett wanted to visit his family in the Deep South. Mamie at first is against the idea because she knows that life is Mississippi is not like life in Chicago, and even the mildest interactions between Whites and Blacks could escalate to the point of death. But Emmett and his charm win her over and she agrees to let him go. But the grim feeling about Mississippi never leaves her and even up to the day he leaves, she is still wary of him going to the South. She gives him an extensive pep talk and explains all the fears she had about her only son visiting a part of the country where life for Blacks could be unbearable. At first the trip is routine with constant communication between Mamie, Emmett, and her relatives in Money. But on August 28, 1955, that small town changed and life for everyone did as well.

As I mentioned earlier, there is still mystery surrounding the events at the candy story where Carolyn Bryant worked. What is clear is that Emmett and his cousins purchased candy and were on their way out of the store and had stopped on the front porch to congregate as kids often do. It was alleged that Emmett whistled at Bryant, and other outlandish accounts have claimed that he went as far as to grab her by the waist and make suggestive remarks. Although Emmett was from Chicago, I do not believe he was crazy enough to do such a thing. In fact, the story of the sequence of events changed so many times that it is hard to know what happened. Regardless, none of those things, even if they did occur, justify the brutal execution of a teenage boy. Adults failed Emmett and later on, the American justice system failed him and his family. Mamie is at home when the call comes in, and the heartbreaking news comes through in the book like a sledgehammer. It is a moment we know is coming but the dread surrounding it is no less terrifying. I do not know where she found the strength to keep going, but as the events play out, Mamie is like a rock and never stops in her journey to obtain justice for Emmett.

It is clear from the beginning that the trial would be a farce. The local sheriff and citizens were determined to keep Blacks “in their place” and were not going to convict the defendants. However, their crime attracted national attention and put Mississippi in the spotlight, and rightfully so. The jury’s reason for acquittal is laughable and today we know a decision such as that would not happen. But in 1955, in the Deep South, justice for Blacks and other minorities was almost non-existent. But across the country, Americans were waking up to the injustices across the nation. And Emmett’s death catapulted that movement for Civil Rights. Mamie finds herself in the spotlight, meeting scores of famous people from the Rev. Jessie Jackson to Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) And later in life, she meets former U.S. President William J. “Bill” Clinton.  Despite the attention, she never loses focus that the movement is bigger than Emmett. But that does not take away from her grief which remains through her for the remainder of the book. One by one, those close to her make their departures as age and poor health claim their victims. She is the last to go in 2003, but before she leaves, she makes sure to explain the reasons behind her actions and everything she learned in her life. Her collaborator Christopher Benson provides a post-script about Mamie and her death which are a fitting ending to the book. If you know the story of Emmett Till’s death, you must also know the story of his life and his family’s trials and tribulations. This is the place to start.

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B003E8AIDO

The Young Lords: A Radical History – Johanna Fernández

On By Genyc79In American History, Civil Rights Movement3 Comments

Lords

In two weeks, Black History month will commence and highlight the legacy and story of Black Americans. The achievements of  America’s black citizens will come into sharp focus, but the story is far from monolithic. In fact, within and around the movements were organizations who modeled themselves after the Black Panther Party of Self-Defense, Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and others. Among those groups was the Young Lords, a primarily Hispanic America organization which originated in the windy city of Chicago before spreading to other places including my hometown of New York City. This is their story by author Johanna Fernández and the radical history they created in the struggle by Puerto Ricans for their place in American society.

Although not necessary, I do recommend two other books which could serve as primers for the story of the Young Lords. The first is ‘War Against All Puerto Ricans: Revolution and Terror in America’s Colony‘ by Nelson A. Denis and the second is ‘Fantasy Island: Colonialism, Exploitation, and the Betrayal of Puerto Rico‘ by Ed Morales. Both are invaluable tools in understanding the current-day state of Puerto Rico. I also recommend ‘When I Was Puerto Rican‘ by Esmeralda Santiago. The story here originates in the City of Chicago, where a young Puerto Rican man named Jose “Cha Cha” Jimenez reaches his breaking point after witnessing the discrimination and exploitation of Puerto Ricans who relocated to the mainland United States from their Caribbean island. A native of the island himself, Jimenez understood the experiences of others who had to make a new home in cities they were unfamiliar with. Added to their despair was the social climate of America during the turbulent 1960s when America found itself going through profound change.

I was fascinated learning about Jimenez’s story, and the transformation he undergoes as he becomes aware of the plight facing his neighborhood. The author does an excellent job in allowing the reader to view things as Jimenez would have in the late 1960s. We learn that his mother, who is from an older generation, sees things differently and the two are sometimes at odds over how to move forward when others see them as a threat. His path to the outspoken Lords figure started early. In fact, a Fernandez explains:

“Cha Cha Jiménez had been a Young Lord since the age of eleven. He was among a group of seven youths—six Puerto Ricans and one Mexican—who had organized the gang in 1959. The others included the group’s unofficial leader, Orlando Dávila, as well as Benny Perez, David Rivera, Fermín Perez, Joe Vincente, and the Mexican-descended Sal del Rivero.” 

It is surreal that at the age of eleven, Jimenez and others were envisioning their path when other kids would typically be signing up for little league baseball or making plans for summer camp.  Further, the author does not shy away from another complicated issue: race within Puerto Rican culture itself.  The identity of Afro-Puerto Rican is a major component of the story that actually propels the Young Lords forward. However, it is also taboo, but in the book, the members of the Young Lords are not afraid to confront it and use it as a tool for solidarity. For Jimenez and others like him, they had to confront the issue of being labeled a “minority” while also exploring their heritage. It was a journey in search of two identities.

As the story progresses, the Young Lords grow in size as other young Puerto Ricans are drawn to their message. However, the issue of class comes up, and there is friction between the older middle-upper class Puerto Ricans and the young bearded revolutionaries who were reading the works of Chinese Communist Party leader Mao Zedong (1893-1976), Argentine revolutionary Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1928-1967) and others. The movement could not be contained, and the story picks up the pace when a new chapter for the Lords is formed in New York City. Taking the cue from Chicago, the New York chapter moves full speed ahead in terms of organization and operations that caught the attention of the entire city. The story left me speechless at times and I also felt a tinge of embarrassment for not knowing the Young Lords story and their place in the history of the Five Boroughs. From the seizure of the First Spanish United Methodist Church to the occupation at Lincoln Hospital, the Lords were determined to make their voices heard and did. The unbelievable events are re-told in vivid detail and highlight the organizational skills and commitment by the Lords to their cause. Today both episodes are footnotes in history but in 1970, the New York Police Department took them very seriously.

Following the events of 1970, the story takes a sharp turn when the group shifts its focus from New York to Puerto Rico itself. How and why the decision was made is covered in the book, and as I read, I was confused  at the change in course. Of course, Puerto Rico was the heart of the group even with twenty-five percent of the members being Black Americans. However, the island was very different from New York City and Chicago, and that becomes clear in the story. It is not long before the Lords re-focus on New York but by then, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (“FBI”) had them on their radar. And like the Panthers and other left-wing groups, the infamous COINTEL program found its mark. Before the bureau was done, shockwaves traveled through the organization all the way up the chain of command. The story of party official Gloria Fontanez and her marriage are an example of how far the bureau had infiltrated the group. It can be argued that this was the beginning of the end for the Young Lords. However, their impact could not be ignored, and for thousands of Puerto Ricans, they instilled pride and hope, that they too will move forward in life.

Upon finishing the book, I sat back for a minute to digest what I had read. The Young Lords had accomplished what no one imagined, in such a short period of time. Aside from the public actions which caught the attention of City Hall, they had also started a newspaper called ‘Palante’. They understood that knowledge is power, and to learn, reading is a necessary tool. To drive home the point about Palante and its creation, Fernández explains that:

“With little to no experience in newspaper production or training in journalism, the approximately ten young radicals who were on the Palante team at any given time worked doubly hard to produce one of the few bilingual newspapers of the period—no small accomplishment for an organization with few members who were fluent or formally trained in Spanish.”

The success of Palante was no small feat but by 1971, the Young Lords’ offices in New York City were gone. We learn of the split between the New York and Chicago chapters of the organization which is eerily similar to the fallout within the Black Panther Party. Party expulsions, deaths and exodus for other reasons only served to deplete the ranks of the once formidable revolutionary party. But it does not diminished the heights the Young Lords reached in a time when being Puerto Rican was seen as below-human and few understood the pride that came with being Boricua. If you want to know more about the Young Lords and New York City History, this is the place to start.

ASIN ‏:‎ 1469653443