Tag: Japan

Black Snow: Curtis LeMay, the Firebombing of Tokyo and the Road to the Atomic Bomb – James M. Scott

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The surrender of Japan on August 15, 1945, formally marked the conclusion of World War II after five years of anarchy in Europe and Asia. Germany had previously surrendered on May 8 following the collapse of German Chancellor Adolf Hitler’s (1889-1945) Third Reich. Allied commanders felt relief as it became clear that the planned ground invasion of Japan in the autumn of 1945 would no longer be necessary.  The deployment of atomic weapons developed at Los Alamos, New Mexico, ushered in a new era in which world destruction became hauntingly real. America’s use of the bombs remains controversial, but President Harry S. Truman (1884-1972) remained firm in his position that the bomb was needed to end the worst war the planet had seen. Detractors of Truman will point out that Japan would have been defeated without the use of atomic weapons. Of course, we will never know this for certain but the story of the air raids across Japan which included firebombs and the use of the atomic bombs “Fat Man” and “Little Boy”, is interesting and removes any doubt that Japan would lose the war. Author James M. Scott explores this controversial subject and the man whose name sent chills down the spines of enemies, Gen. Curtis E. LeMay (1906-1990).

Before continuing, I want to issue a disclaimer to readers sensitive to descriptions of death and warfare. This book is not easy to read and if you believe that America should never have used atomic weapons, then it may not be for you. And though the author neither condemns or condones the use of either weapon, it is a case study on how Air Force commanders analyzed the failure to cripple Japan, and the lessons learned to inflict maximum devastation on the “Land of the Rising Sun”. But before we arrive at Japan’s doorstep, the author revisits the air campaign in Europe which played a crucial role in Germany’s defeat. The bombings of Dresden and Hamburg are discussed, and readers familiar with each event know that following each air raid, the German people realized increasingly that an overwhelming victory was an illusion. As to when they knew the war was lost is hard to pinpoint, but Operation Gomorrah on July 10, 1943, was a wake-up call. The advance of the Soviet Red Army in 1945 signaled that the end was near, and on April, 30 Hitler lived his last moments buried in his underground bunker before committing suicide. Germany had lost the war, but Japan continued to resist and the grim reality of mass casualties in a ground invasion was hard to accept. But everything changed when LeMay was given free rein to go after Japan. On a side note, LeMay had served in the European Theater and was re-assigned to the Pacific in 1944.

“Tokyo,” LeMay declared, “would be our target—the primary target, the secondary target, and the only target.”

Curtis E. LeMay is one of most controversial military figures in American history, and rightfully so. To some he is seen as a war criminal without feeling who would stop at nothing until victory was secure, but to others he was the person needed to conduct difficult orders which required a cold detailed analysis. The truth about LeMay lies in between both and contrary to his stern appearance, he did have a soft side. Snippets of his letters back home to wife Helen (1908-1992) and daughter Patricia Jane LeMay Dodge (d. 2016) reveal the effects of the war on the LeMay family. But on the outside to those who served under him, he was as tough as they came. Although Scott provides a good discussion of his life, the biographical data is brief in comparison to the larger story at hand which is the crux of the book. Readers who are interested in LeMay’s life will enjoy Warren Kozak’s ‘LeMay: The Life and Wars of General Curtis Lemay‘, which is a good biography of the famous aviator. Here, the story focuses on defeating Japan, and LeMay was determined to bring the empire to its knees. And this is where the story takes a darker turn as the air raids increase and the bombs become more severe in nature. 

As I read the book, I personally did not have difficulty with the subject matter and was aware of LeMay’s role in World War II. I expected a grim picture to emerge as the firebombing campaigns set Tokyo and other cities ablaze. In fact, it is a raw and unfiltered look into the final stages of the war and the destruction from the air raids masterminded by LeMay and his subordinates who ensured that the B-29 bomber earned a place in military history. But as one would expect, it is impossible to finish a book such as this without the issue of morality coming up. The post-bombing descriptions are graphic, but they drive home the brutality of war. And they also force us to confront whether LeMay was morally wrong for his successes. Surely, Japan was brutal to its Asian neighbors and had attacked the United States first, but what occurred under LeMay’s watch disturbed even the most seasoned military veterans. One one point, LeMay issues an interesting statement which makes it clear that if the Allies had lost, he knew his life would be over. But despite the firebombing raids, Japan still refused to surrender. Unbeknownst to Japan, in early summer 1945, LeMay is briefed on a new weapon at Los Alamos and its fate is sealed. 

The remainder of the book following the revelation of the atomic weapons focuses on the plans drawn up to drop the two bombs on Japan. It is not a discussion of the planning or work at Los Alamos. Organizational issues are discussed as LeMay’s squads prepare for the drops. And when they happen, the impact of what transpires can be felt while reading. Scott heightens the suspense as America unleashes weapons that changed history. On the ground, the result is swift, deadly, and catastrophic. And for many years afterwards, Japanese men, women and children would continue to suffer from the effects of the bombs. But they had the intended effect, and the emperor soon realized that destruction was in store if Japan did not surrender. In hindsight we know that it did but in August 1945 after the second bomb was dropped, military officials waited on edge for confirmation that Japan was waiving the white flag. That moment soon arrives and the announcement by the emperor is included in the book, bringing the narrative closer to its conclusion. 

After I finished the book, I sat for a few minutes deep in thought. I had my own questions about LeMay’s actions but also reminded myself that America was at war. And had Japan continued to fight, commanders in the Pacific were ready to drop more atomic weapons which would have resulted in complete destruction for Japan. And a ground war would have resulted in over one million casualties. The air raids were horrific, but they did bring the war to an end. Finally, every military has its own LeMay, that commander who can detach feelings from the mission at hand to ensure maximum carnage and victory. Throughout his life he  never regretted his actions and felt that it had to be done. There is an old saying that “war is hell”. It is but there are lessons to be learned so that the same mistakes are not repeated by future generations. And war also contains warnings not to be ignored. In successfully engineering Japan’s defeat, LeMay vindicated the late Captain William Lendrum “Billy” Mitchell (1879-1936) who warned that air defense was being overlooked at America’s peril. Mitchell was a fierce advocate for air power and his relentless drive to convince Washington earned him a court-martial. But in December 1941, his warnings came back to haunt the country when the Japanese military attacked the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor. World War II is a part of the past, but it should never be forgotten. The war claimed millions of lives and left millions homeless and refugees as they wandered about in cities left in ruins. But the war also provided pivotal moments in the lives of those who served and survived such as the late Gen. Curtis E. LeMay. Highly recommended.

“I had to select a man for the job who had experience, knowledge, judgment, but who was also cold as steel when it came to sending out his missions. I selected Curt LeMay.” —GEN. HAP ARNOLD NOVEMBER 7, 1948

ASIN ‏ : ‎ B09TQ2RRFQ
Publisher ‏ : ‎ W. W. Norton & Company (September 6, 2022)

Predicting Pearl Harbor: Billy Mitchell and the Path to War – Ronald Drez

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billySeveral days ago, America marked eighty-three years since the Japanese military attacked the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The attack claimed the lives of 2,403 people and paved the way for America’s entry into World War II. On December 8, the day after the attack, President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) declared the attack a “Day of Infamy”. Four years later, Japan surrendered following the use of two atomic weapons by the United States Air Force. In the years that followed, there would be speculation as to whether the White House knew in advance that Pearl Harbor would be attacked. The issue remains controversial but there were officials who had predicted a Japanese military attack in the Pacific. Among them was the late Col. William Lendrum “Billy” Mitchell (1879-1936), an early pioneer of air defense whose premonitions were vindicated by the success of Air Force General Curtis E. Lemay (1906-1990) during World War II. Today Mitchell is a footnote in history, but this seasoned commander never wavered in his outspoken belief that Japan would attack America in the pacific. This is his story and how America’s military brass missed a crucial opportunity to take the lead in air defense. 

You may be wondering why you have never heard of Billy Mitchell. Sadly, he died in 1936, three years before German Chancellor Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) gave the green light for the German Wehrmacht to invade neighboring Poland and ignite the second world war. However, his importance to history cannot be overlooked. But the key to understanding Mitchell’s relentless crusade to change the mindset of military commanders lies in the Japanese empire itself, often misunderstood from a historical context. The author provides a thorough discussion of the closed-door policy held by Japan and the risk of execution by those who dared to enter its vicinity and even Japanese seeking to return home. The expedition by U.S. Naval Officer Matthew C. Perry (1794-1858) which is discussed in the book, was a pivotal moment in world history but far from the end of the story. In fact, Japan was the beast that was now wide awake. 

Mitchell was a World War I veteran, but his focus had shifted to the Pacific which he came to believe was the perfect avenue for Japanese expansion. His reasons are explained methodically by the author who relays Mitchell’s own observations and writings about what he learned as he toured the Far East in 1923. In America, he knew he was facing an uphill battle but believed that demonstrations were key. Thus, we learn from the story of several demonstrations of air power which left commanders speechless and proved that air combat was a reality. Mitchell was on the money, but the military was not yet ready to listen. Undeterred, his mission to change the view of air power proceeded, but he soon found enemies from within. 

As I read the story, I kept asking myself why very few people in high command were watching Japan. The author reviews the country’s movements in the years before Pearl Harbor as its empire expanded across Asian. Further, Japan’s departure from the League of Nations on March 27, 1933, alarm bells should have been ringing throughout the nation. Readers will see the pieces of the puzzle come together as the Land of the Rising Sun ramps up its war effort. Mitchell and the late Gen. Homer Lea (1876-1912), an officer in the army of Chinese President Sun Yat-sen (1886-1925), had both warned of Japanese influence but to no avail. But Mitchell would not give up and we eventually reach the final act of the book when he is tried before a military court due to his refusal to abandon support for a dedicated air defense system. 

The court trial proceeded like the staged event Mitchell expected but he came out swinging, backed by public opinion and supported by fellow aviators who later made their claims to fame. While reading I had hoped that Mitchell would prevail, but he knew his fate was sealed. The court testimony is riveting and shows the politics at play in the armed forces. But in the end, Mitchell could not escape the court-martial waiting for him. The sad conclusion marks the end to a valiant effort to alert America to a growing threat in the Far East. Unfortunately, it would take the attack at Pearl Harbor to wake up America’s military which then pushed for an air defense network and combat network. Mitchell’s chilling warnings in his report on the Pacific were shunned and ignored but later came back to haunt the American military. But the air force would not let his memory die, and the B-29 bomber conducted the missions that would have made Mitchell proud. The author writes in smooth narrative that keeps the reader engaged from start to finish. And at the end of the book, we are given another story about events on the Pacific Island of Niihau which provided the blueprint for internment of suspected foreign sympathizers here in America. Highly recommended. 

“With us air people, the future of our nation is indissolubly bound up in the development of air power.” – Col. Billy Mitchell

ASIN ‏ : ‎ 1455623156
Publisher ‏ : ‎ Pelican Publishing (August 15, 2017)

Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States Since 1850 – Roger Daniels

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20200118_220256President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) is known primarily from his time in the White House and untimely death but many forget that he was also an accomplished writer.  In the well-received “A Nation of Immigrants“,  he gives his take on how immigration built the nation known as America.  Images of Ellis Island and the Statue of Liberty will surely come to the minds of readers who decided to read Kennedy’s work.  However, there is more to the immigrant story in America and often forgotten are the many other groups who have emigrated to the land of opportunity.  Roger Daniels decided to take a further look into the Chinese and Japanese experience in America and what he found may surprise many of us.

The story begins in 1849 as California becomes ground zero for the gold rush.   We learn right away that over 300,000 Chinese came to America to work in mines and in other trades, such as building cross-continental railroads.  By 1882, the gold rush was over, the railroads had been nearly completed and hundreds of thousands of Chinese now found themselves out of work.  They were far away from China in a new country that did not rush to embrace them. In fact, what happened after the gold rush opened my eyes to the Asian experience in America and revealed many dark parts of American history.

This book could easily be added as required reading in high school classroom and in a college syllabus.  It reads like a textbook but the exception is that is has not been heavily sanitized. Daniels had no intention of sugar coating anything and the facts that are presented here are beyond sobering. Paranoia, suspicion and fear of a “yellow invasion”, gave birth to some of the most discriminatory laws passed in United States history.   Beginning with the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1870 and the later Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the anti-Chinese movement gained in momentum and threatened the very existence of Chinese-Americans. Similarly, Japanese immigrants who arrived to America by way of Hawaii, soon found that their new home was not so welcoming.  The anti-Chinese movement soon became part of larger anti-Asian sentiment spreading across the United States.  And contrary to what we may think about Asian immigration, the Pacific played an even more important role than the Atlantic.  Exactly how is explained in detail by Daniels.

As the world found itself embroiled in two world wars, the Chinese and Japanese in America were struggling simply for recognition as human beings.  California remained the battle ground in the struggle between natives and new immigrants from the Far East.  San Francisco was the scene of some of the most absurd moments in the book and will cause readers today to wonder at how such inhumane treatment of others  was tolerated and endorsed in the late 1800s into the early 1900s.  The Alien Land Act of 1913 is a prime example of  some of the draconian laws passed to disenfranchise America’s Asian citizens.  However, in spite of outright racist treatment and propaganda, the Chinese and Japanese remained firm in their belief of the American dream.  World War II became the moment where life for the Japanese in America was turned upside down and would test the patriotism of even the most ardent believers in the United States.

The book is not a full examination of the Japanese internment in camps during the war. However, Daniels does a thorough job of explaining how the program developed, what President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) knew and the effect it had on the Japanese mindset both during and following the war.  High focused is placed on the Japanese American Citizens League, which played an integral role in the affairs of Japanese Americans in many ways, some of which will surprise some.  However, its importance cannot be understated.  What I did find to be mind-boggling was that the U.S. Military never had a deep suspicion on a whole of Japanese Americans taking up arms in defense of Toyko, but the media and politicians clearly had a different agenda.

Today, the treatment revealed in the book would cause shock and outrage.  I have many friends whose families originate throughout Asia.  They are as American as I am but the thought of legislation being passed to bar them from citizenship, prevent them from assimilating in society or to prevent them from even entering the country,  is beyond horrifying.   However, this was the reality for thousands of Chinese and Japanese in the United States before the passage of civil rights bills and Supreme Court decisions that struck down bans of segregation and interracial marriage.  America has come a long way but there is still work to be done.

While reading Daniel’s words, I could not help but to feel that some of the divisive rhetoric employed by politicians then is also heard now.  Fears of “invasion” and “threats to our way of life” permeated beliefs in the 1800s and 1900s, resulting in regrettable treatment of Chinese and Japanese Americans.  And in some cases, that rhetoric proved to be deadly.  That same danger exist today.  If we are to continue to move forward, then we must remember that less than one hundred and fifty years ago, anyone who was not White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, found that life in America was a contradiction to the belief that all men are created equal.  If we fail to remember the past, we are doomed to repeat it. I truly hope we do not.  Roger Daniels has given us a guide to study and learn from so that we do make the same mistakes. Highly recommended.

ISBN-10: 0295970189
ISBN-13: 978-0295970189

River in Darkness: One Man’s Escape from North Korea – Masaji Ishikawa

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IshikawaWhen I read the synopsis for this book, I was a bit surprised.  Stories by defectors from North Korea are not uncommon, but the name of the author caused my interest to rise.  The surname is clearly Japanese but the connection to North Korea was the part that pulled me in.  Masaji Ishikawa was born in Japan to a Japanese mother and Korean father.  In 1959, the Japanese Red Cross Society and the Korean Red Cross Society secretly negotiated a “Return Agreement”, allowing any native born North Koreans living in Japan to return to their homeland.  The General Association of Korean Residents in Japan, then initiated a repatriation campaign which reached the Ishikawa family.  His father was convinced by the league to return to North Korea in 1960, the family moved to North Korea under the illusion of a bright and prosperous future.

Soon after their arrival, the Ishikawas soon realize that North Korea is no paradise.  In fact, it was a far cry form life in Japan and over the next thirty years, they would endure trials and tribulations that will cause the reader to recoil in shock at the extent to which humans can degrade each other.  In Japan, life was good and although the family was not wealthy, they lived a stable and middle class lifestyle.  In North Korea, the facade easily cracks and the Ishikawas are now just another family in the communist regime under Kim ll Sung  (1912-1994).  The rhetoric is strong and the propaganda endless.  The people are taught that American invaders could attack at any minute and one must use Juche to become a good party member.   Young Masaji is forced to navigate this new world as a foreigner who does not speak Korean and is routinely called derogatory terms for Japanese returnees.  This was the reality that many Japanese faced while living as minorities in North Korea.

I have read other books about defectors from North Korea but this one stands out.  The author reveals life in the country and all of its gritty reality.   There are no moments of joy. In fact, as Ishikawa points out on several occassions, it is like being in hell and the misery with which the people live will undoubtedly shock some readers.  While the tanks rolled in Pyongyang and the Dear Leader gave his speeches attacking the West, the people lived a much different reality.  To readers who live in a western culture, there will be many things that make no sense at all. However, Ishikawa discusses this and explains very frankly how and why North Koreans believe what they do.   His observations about the North Korean mindset and the actions of Pyongyang are keen and an inside look into the fallacy of the Dear Leader.

One question I have always wondered to myself is if things were so rough, how did the population continue?  Ishikawa reflects on this as well.  His personal life took many twists and turns before his defection, including marriage and fatherhood.  He discusses the many challenges of bringing a child into the world and then finding support to raise a new family.  His plight and that of others who had the misfortune of coming down with an illness, highlight the climate of distrust and deception created by Pyongyang.  Human nature is on full display in the book, at times in its its ugliest form.  The actions of neighbors and those who are part of the system are a reflection of the deep social dysfunction that plagued a country in which people were simply trying to survive.  The State was succeeding with its divide and conquer technique working perfectly.

On July 8, 1994, Kim II Sung died and was succeeded by his son Kim Jong-il (1947-2011).  At this point in the book, things take an even sharper turn.  What was already hell becomes Dante’s inferno.   Ishikawa recalls the descent into further misery for many Koreans as food became even more scarce, work non-existent and fear more prevalent.  Mentally he is at the breaking point and soon makes a decision that changes his life and those of his family forever.  He makes the difficult decision to defect but knows that it is a one way ticket with no such thing as returning to visit.  He is a father and husband about to leave his family behind in a country sealed off from the rest of the world.  But he is also determined to escape misery and certain death in North Korea, and his journey to return to Japan is nothing short of miraculous.  Readers will find this part of the book uplifting and confirmation that at times, hope and faith are indispensable.  Ishikawa’s story is incredible and I believe that anyone can find many things to learn in this short but appreciated memoir.

ASIN: B06XKRKFZL

Midnight in Broad Daylight: A Japanese American Family Caught Between Two Worlds-Pamela Rotner Sakamoto

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midnight in broadThe Second World War remains the most brutal conflict in history.   The number of those who perished is still up for debate and there are many secrets of the war that have been lost to history forever.  In the United States, foreign-born citizens with roots in any of the countries part of the Axis powers, found their selves under suspicion and in the case of the Japanese, placed into concentration camps.   Although not as inhumane and deadly as the camps in Germany and Poland, they resulted in the rise of resentment among Japanese-Americans toward the United States Government and the country they called home.  The dropping of the Atomic bombs further heightened the feeling of resentment and was the first and only time a nuclear weapon was used in warfare.  Survivors of the bomb attacks can still be found today, advanced in their years but tragically familiar with the barbarity of modern warfare.  Across the pacific, Japanese-American veterans of the war remember the tragedy that befell Japan, the nation to which their families trace their origins.  But what happens when half of a family is in Japan and the other half is in the United States?  Or what do you do when one son is part of the Japanese Imperial Army and the other is part of the United States Armed Forces?  And when the war is over, how do you come to terms with the effects war has had on your family and yourself?  This is the story of the Fukuhara family whose lives are the answer to those questions. Written by Pamela Rotner Sakamoto and containing snippets of interviews conducted with those relevant to the story, Midnight in Broad Daylight is a heart wrenching story of a family struggling to survive, having been affected by a war in more ways than one.

Following the death of the family patriarch, a widow is faced with the daunting challenge of raising several children on an almost non-existent budget.  Her plight is compounded by the social climate of strong prejudice against Asian-Americans.  Seeking a better quality of life, she makes the decision to relocate to her homeland of Japan where several other children reside.  There, they are briefly reunited and their situation forms the nexus for the remainder of the story as we follow Kino, her children Harry, Victory, Frank and Mary as they move through life and encounter war on a scale unlike anything ever seen before.  Harry (1925-2015) and Mary eventually move back to the United States leaving behind Kino, Victor and Frank.  Life moves along for each until December 7, 1941, the day that lives in infamy, when the Japanese air force bombed Pearl Harbor bringing the United States into the war.  From that point on, none of their lives would ever be the same again.  Harry became the most popular of the siblings, earning his induction in the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame in 1988.

The East and West still have much ground to cover in completely understanding each other.  Foreigners who move to the United States often face the challenge of enforcing native traditions on their American children.  Generational and cultural gaps are formed making the path to understanding and compromise seem as if it is completely out of reach.  But if we take the time to read the story of the Fukuhara’s, we can find solid footing allowing us to examine the fears and concerns about culture being lost.   Today, it is probably impossible for any of us to begin to understand the inner conflict a person must have had if they were Japanese during World War II.   The attacks at Pearl Harbor caught nearly all by surprise including Japanese-Americans.  But following the attack and the United States entry into the conflict, life became harder and the prejudices against Japanese far much stronger.  With hindsight we can easily find fault with government policy during that era but today we would be hard pressed to say if some of us would do otherwise. Regardless of whether you are a hawk or a dove, this story is moving and one that should be widely read.  As I made my way through the book, I found myself rooting for the Fukuhara’s, hoping that they all make it through the war and reunite with a happy ending.  This did not happen.  The book is not easy to read in some parts, in particular with regards to the concentration camps and the bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima.  We should never fail to comprehend the level of devastation caused by the devices known as Fat Man and Little Boy.   The effects of the blast and subsequent radiation sickness are on full display and reinforces my belief that Japan’s resurrection after the war was nothing short of miraculous.

I hope that the world never experiences a conflict on the scale of World War II.  If we do, it might be the world’s final war.  As the people of Japan were preparing for the Allied invasion, I am sure that they too thought that the war would be Japan’s total demise.  For their relatives here in the United States, there was only waiting and uneasiness as news of the atomic bombs spread across the globe.  The Fukuhara’s lives are a case study of what happens to those families caught on both sides of a conflict regardless of their personal beliefs or character.  For the rest of their lives, the events of the 1940s remained with them as reminders of a dark period in world history.  If you are a student of world history and/or a World War II buff, then this book a welcomed addition.

ISBN-10: 006235194X
ISBN-13: 978-0062351944